social psych exam #2

Attitudes

-global evaluations toward some object or issue

Beliefs

-pieces of information about something (cognitively)

why we have attitudes

-they help us to take action

-Mainly used to sort things into “good” and “bad” categories

-Helpful in making choices

-Increase ease, speed, and quality of making choices and decisions

Dual Attitudes

-Different evaluations of the same attitude object held by the same person

-deliberate

-automatic

Automatic attitudes

-Very fast, evaluative

-“gut-level” responses that people don’t think a great deal about

Deliberate attitudes

-Reflective responses that people think more carefully about

how attitudes are formed

-mere exposure effect

mere exposure effect

-tendency to come to like things simply because they are encountered repeatedly

-does not work on things that we have an initial dislike

-effect of physiology on attitude formation study

-showed that our bodily movement can effect our attitudes

-it tricked the participants brains into thinking they felt one way about something, either shaking their head or nodding it

Embodied attitudes

-Bodily movements shape people’s attitudes

Classical conditioning

-Learning through repeated pairings

-a neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response

operant conditioning (Skinner)

-learning in which people are more likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded

-Less likely to repeat behaviors that have been punished

social learning (Bandura)

-learning which occurs when people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for them

-Less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for

them

attitude polarization

-people’s attitudes become more extreme as they reflect on them

-May generate new ideas or insights not considered when initial attitudes were formed

-People who hold strong attitudes on certain issues are likely to evaluate relevant evidence in a biased manner

Cognitive dissonance theory

-inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort

-Leads people to rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes

-People want to maintain consistency

-people feel motivated to resolve the dissonance

-we can change our attitudes or behaviors to match the other

-ex you vape everyday but know it’s bad for you so you feel discomfort around the topic, you might try to justify your attitude that vaping isn’t bad for you b/c its easier than changing our behavior

cognitive dissonance study (festinger)

-experimenter asked participants to lie that a boring task was interesting to a new test taker by giving them 1 dollar or 20 dollars, once they told the lie the experimenter asked how interesting the task was for 20 dollars and didn’t lie but one dollar group did and made it favorable, 1 dollar isn’t much so they tried to convince themsleves it was worth it to lie

believing versus doubting

-Believing is automatic

-Doubt may require controlled, conscious thought

assumptive worlds

-people live in social worlds based on certain beliefs about reality

-the world is good/kind

-the world is fair and just

-I am a good person

coping

-how people attempt to deal with stressful traumas and go back to functioning effectively in life

cognitive coping

-idea that beliefs play a central role in helping people cope with and recover from misfortunes

-downward and upward comparisons

gordon allport

-attitude is an important concept in psychology

alan wicker

-attitudes are a trivial peripheral phenomenon

-A-B problem

A-B problem

the problem of inconsistency between attitudes (A) and behaviors (B)

general attitudes and specific behaviors

-attitudes can predict specific behavior, but only when very specific attitudes are measures

behavior agression

-combining attitudes across many different behaviors on different occasions

broad attitudes in context

-an influence specific behaviors when interpreted here and now

-ex. you may be asked about the homeless and say its a valid cause but when asked to serve at a soup kitchen your behavior is different and yo don’t want to

Normative influence

-being liked and accepted

Solomon Asch

-group acceptance is more important than being correct

-line study

Informational influence

-being correct

Muzafer Sherif

-going along with the group because you think they know more than you

-autokinetic effect

groupthink

-a person in a group feels different than others on a topic but doesn’t speak up because they don’t want to disagree

information social influence produces private acceptance

-genuine inner belief that others are right

normative social influences produces public compliance

-inner belief that the group is probs wrong but outwardly going along with the group

commitment and consistency techniques

-foot in door

-Low-ball technique

Foot-in-the-door technique

-Start with a small request to gain eventual compliance with a larger request

Low-ball technique

-Start with a seemingly low-cost request and only later reveal hidden additional costs

Reciprocation techniques

-door-in-the-face technique

-that’s-not-all technique

door in the face technique

-start with large ask then go down to smaller one

that’s not all technique

-Begin with an inflated request, but before the person can respond, sweeten the deal by offering a bonus or discount

Scarcity techniques

-the limited-number technique

-fast-approaching-deadline technique

Limited-number technique

-an item is in short supply (only a limited number available)

Fast-approaching-deadline technique

-an item or price is only available for a limited time

Capturing and disrupting attention

-pique technique

-disrupt-then-reframe technique

Pique technique

-Capture people’s attention by making a novel request

Disrupt-then-reframe technique

-introduce an unexpected element that disrupts critical thinking and then reframe the message in a positive light

mindful persuasion and the Pique technique study

-had a homeless (confederate) person ask for money with specific amount (IV) but when other confederates asked for an atypical amount people were more likely to give money (DV)

-found that there was 60% more likelihood for people to give money to unusual request becasue it get’t their attention than a normal amount

persuasion

attempt to change a persons attitude

components of persuasion

-Who: the message source (credibility and likability are important elements)

-Says what: the message (reason, facts vs appealing to emotions)

-To whom: the audience (what are the characteristics of the members of the audience)

who: the source

source: individual who delivers message

-credible or not: expertise and trustworthiness

-source likability: influenced by similarity and physical attractiveness

-halo effect

halo effect

-the assumption that people with one desirable trait (e.g., attractiveness) also possess many other desirable traits (ex. intelligence)

says what: the message

-Reason versus emotion: Present the cold, hard facts or appeal to emotions (e.g., good mood, humor,and fear)

-One-sided versus two-sided messages

-One-sided messages: more effective when audience members are less educated or have already made up their minds

-Repetition: repeat exposure influences memory

-Advertisement wear-out

audience characteristics

-know characteristic of audience

-distraction: get the conscious mind out of the way

central route persuasion

-involves deliberate mind

-careful thoughtful consideration of the content of the persuasive message

peripheral route persuasion

-involves automatic mind

-influenced by a simple cue

resisting social influence

-attitude inoculation

-forewarned is forearmed

-stockpile resources

attraction

-anything that draws two or more people together

Social acceptance

-Other people have come to like you, respect you, approve of you, and include you in their groups and relationships

Rejection

Others exclude you, so that you are not able to form or keep a social bond with them

Forming bonds is a big part of human life

-Vital to form and maintain some relationships

-Involves securing acceptance

Belongingness as a basic need

-Desire to form and maintain close, lasting relationships

-Drives people to affiliate, commit, and remain together

two parts of belonging

1. regular social contacts

2. stable frameowrk of some ongoing relationhsip: mutual concern for each other

Not belonging is bad for you

-Higher rates of disease, affects mental/physical health, and increases death risks

ingratitation

-what people actively do to try to make others like them

Dissimilarities in Physical Attractiveness study

-the more dissimilar couples were, the more liekly they were to break up

Social rewards

-you make me feel good

Reinforcement theory

-people and animals will perform behaviors that have been rewarded more than they will perform other behaviors

Social allergy effect

-a partner’s annoying habits become more annoying over time

“You again”

-mere exposure

-People grow to like people whom they encounter on a regular basis (propinquity)

What is beautiful is good effect

-physically attractive people will be viewed as superior to others on many other traits (halo effect)

online dating advantages and dissadvantages

-Expands range of potential partners

-Enables communication before meeting

-Allows searching for best matches

-People do not always tell the truth in their online profiles

-Is not a magic recipe for finding love

ostracism

-being excluded, rejected, and ignored

effects of rejection

-inner reactions

-Pain

-illness

-depression

-suicidal thoughts

-eating disorders

-helplessness,

-promiscuity

-low self-esteem

-feelings of worthlessness

rejection sensitivity

-expecting rejection from others and to become hypersensitive to possible rejection

social exclusion weakens restraint studies.

-rejected people ate more cookies but drank less of a healthy but bad-tasting beverage

-rejected people are more likely to eat fattening or junk food

-rejection undermines self-regulation

behavioral effects of rejection

-Show decrease in intelligent thought

- Approach new interactions with skepticism

-Are less generous, cooperative, and helpful

-Are more willing to cheat or break rules

-Act in short-sighted, impulsive, and even self-destructive ways

Why some people kill or harm

-rejection leads to aggression

-Aggression leads to rejection

rejection in young kids

-due to aggression, withdrawal, being different

loneliness

-painful feeling of wanting more human contact or connection than you have

unrequited love

-One person loves another, but the other does not return that love

romantic rejection

-Men are more often in the rejected role

—can lead to stalking

-women are more often in the rejecting role

stalking

-Persisting in romantic, courtship, or other behaviors that frighten and harass the rejecter in a relationship

interpersonal attraction

-affiliation

-belonging

sexual fluditity

-people can change their sexual orientation throughout their lives

what is love and intimacies

-love changes over time

Love-based marriages are more fragile than arranged marriages

-love is not a feeling

-Real love grows while superficial love will fade

-our language for love is inadequate

-love is often misdiagnosed

-love is paradoxical

-giving love is receiving love

Sternbergs love triangle

-passion

-intimacy

-commitment

types of love

-liking

-infatuated love

-empty love

-romantic love

-companionte love

-fatuous love

-consummate love

parts of a relationship

-discernment

-initiation

-negotiation

-cohibition

-commitment

theories that help explain how systems shape relationships

-anatonormativity

-compulsory sexuality

-cisheteronormality

what do we know works

-love

-intimacy

-trust

-appreciation

prejudice

-a negative feeling toward an individual due to their group

membership

racism

-prejudiced attitudes toward a particular race

Explicit vs. subtle racism

-Microaggressions: commonplace daily verbal, behavioral or environmental slights, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward stigmatized or culturally marginalized groups

Aversive racism

-simultaneously holding egalitarian values and negative feelings toward people of other race

Discrimination

-unequal treatment of different people based on their group membership

ABCs of intergroup relationships

-Affective component: prejudice

-Behavioral component: discrimination

-Cognitive component: stereotyping

stereotypes

-beliefs that associate groups with certain traits

-comes from evolution; see someone who could put you in dnager you stereotype

-subtypes

-categorization

-social categorization

Subtypes

-categories for people who don’t fit a general stereotype

Categorization

-the natural tendency to sort objects into groups

Social categorization

-sorting people into groups on the basis of common characteristics (e.g., race, gender, age, sexual orientation, and religion)

police shooting study (stereotyping)

-looked at police decision to use lethal force or not

-found that officers, both white and black, were more likely to make wrong decisions when the suspect was black comapred to white

-training is important to counteract stereotypes