Mr. Sinn Unit 1

nature

genetic predispositions that influence an individual's physical, behavioral, and mental traits.

nurture

external factors such as family, friends, and school that shape an individual.

evolutionary perspective

focuses on how natural selection and ancestral traits influence current behaviors.

natural selection

the process where traits helping survival are passed to offspring while unhelpful ones are not.

eugenics

the belief in improving the human population by discouraging reproduction of those with undesirable traits.

hereditability

a mathematical estimate of how much variation in a population is due to genes.

epigenetics

the study of how environment and behavior can turn genes on or off without changing the dna sequence.

plasticity

the brain's ability to change and build new neural pathways based on experience.

twin and adoption studies

research methods used to evaluate the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits.

what is the difference between nature and nurture?

nature refers to heredity and genetics, while nurture refers to environmental and external factors.

how does natural selection apply to psychology?

it suggests that behaviors or fears that helped ancestors survive are passed down to keep us safe.

does hereditability apply to individuals or populations?

it is a mathematical measure that only applies to variations within a population.

how does epigenetics differ from dna changes?

epigenetics changes how the body reads a dna sequence but does not change the dna itself.

what have twin studies shown about personality and health?

they have shown that both genes and the environment impact an individual's personality and health behaviors.

central nervous system

the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord that integrates information.

peripheral nervous system

the network of nerves connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

afferent neurons

sensory neurons that send signals from receptors toward the brain and spinal cord.

efferent neurons

motor neurons that send signals away from the brain and spinal cord to muscles.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary skeletal muscle movements and senses.

autonomic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary activities like heart rate and digestion.

sympathetic division

the part of the autonomic system that mobilizes the body for action, known as fight or flight.

parasympathetic division

the part of the autonomic system that calms the body and saves energy, known as rest and digest.

spinal cord

the communication highway that connects the brain to the rest of the body.

what are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

how can you remember the difference between afferent and efferent neurons?

afferent neurons approach the brain while efferent neurons exit the brain.

which system is activated if you decide to move your hand?

the somatic nervous system because it involves voluntary movement.

what is the primary function of the autonomic nervous system?

it controls involuntary functions like breathing and heart rate to maintain homeostasis.

what happens to the body during a sympathetic response?

the heart rate increases, eyes dilate, and digestion slows down to prepare for action.

neuron

the basic functional unit of the nervous system that sends information via electrical and chemical signals.

glial cells

neural cells that provide support, insulation, and nutrients to neurons.

soma

the cell body of a neuron which contains the nucleus and genetic material.

dendrites

fibers that receive chemical information from other neurons through receptor sites.

axon

the long fiber that carries electrical signals away from the cell body toward other neurons.

myelin sheath

a fatty covering produced by schwann cells that protects the axon and speeds up signal transmission.

nodes of ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath that help promote the continuing action potential.

axon terminal

the end point of a neuron where neurotransmitters are released into the synapse.

synapse

the tiny gap between neurons where chemical or electrical communication occurs.

reflex arc

a nerve pathway that allows the body to respond to a stimulus without waiting for the brain to process it.

threshold

the minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

all or none principle

the rule that a neuron fires completely or not at all once a threshold is met.

action potential

an electrical charge that moves along the axon when a neuron fires.

depolarization

the process during an action potential where positive sodium ions flood into the neuron.

refractory period

a short resting time after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again.

re uptake

the process where the sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters from the synapse.

acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory.

dopamine

a neurotransmitter involved in movement, learning, attention, and emotion.

serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood.

endorphins

natural chemicals that help with pain control and pleasure.

norepinephrine

increases blood pressure and heart rate to help with the fight or flight response.

glutamate

a neurotransmitter involved with long term memory and learning.

gaba

a neurotransmitter that helps with sleep and slows down the nervous system.

adrenaline

a hormone that helps with the fight or flight response and memory formation.

leptin

a hormone that signals the brain that the body has enough fat and inhibits hunger.

ghrelin

known as the hunger hormone, it signals to the brain that we are hungry.

melatonin

a hormone produced by the pineal gland that helps regulate the sleep wake cycle.

oxytocin

known as the love hormone, it promotes feelings of affection and emotional bonding.

agonists

substances that increase the effectiveness of a neurotransmitter or mimic its effects.

antagonists

substances that decrease the effectiveness of a neurotransmitter by blocking its release or receptors.

what role do glial cells play in the nervous system?

they provide support for neurons by insulating them, transporting nutrients, and removing waste.

what occurs during depolarization?

positive sodium ions flood into the neuron, making the inside more positive and allowing the signal to travel.

how does a reflex arc save your body from harm?

it allows for a response to dangerous stimuli through the spinal cord before the brain even processes the pain.

what is the difference between an agonist and an antagonist?

an agonist increases or mimics neurotransmitter activity, while an antagonist blocks or decreases it.

what are the characteristics of the four main categories of psychoactive drugs?

stimulants excite neural activity, depressants reduce it, hallucinogens cause sensed objects to not be there, and opioids provide pain relief.

brain stem

the base of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and includes the medulla, pons, and midbrain.

medulla

the part of the brain stem controlling autonomic functions like heart rate and breathing.

pons

connects different parts of the nervous system and regulates sleep and dreaming.

cerebellum

coordinates muscle movement, balance, and procedural learning.

reticular activating system

a bundle of nerves regulating arousal, consciousness, and the sleep wake cycle.

reward center

an area of the brain that uses dopamine to create feelings of satisfaction or pleasure.

thalamus

the brain's sensory relay station that directs sensory information, except smell, to the cortex.

hypothalamus

maintains homeostasis by regulating hunger, thirst, temperature, and the endocrine system.

hippocampus

critical for forming new long term explicit memories but does not store them.

amygdala

involved in emotional responses, particularly fear and aggression.

pituitary gland

known as the master gland, it releases hormones that affect growth and other glands.

cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain responsible for higher level thinking and processing.

corpus callosum

the band of fibers connecting and allowing communication between the two hemispheres.

occipital lobes

located in the back of the brain and responsible for processing visual information.

temporal lobes

located above the ears and responsible for processing sound and language comprehension.

wernicke’s area

found in the temporal lobe and responsible for language comprehension.

parietal lobes

located at the top and back, processing touch, pressure, and body position.

somatosensory cortex

the part of the parietal lobe that processes sensory input from the skin and body.

contralateral organization

the setup where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

frontal lobes

located behind the forehead, responsible for executive functions, planning, and personality.

motor cortex

the area at the back of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary muscle movements.

broca’s area

found in the frontal lobe and involved in speech production.

split brain research

a procedure involving cutting the corpus callosum to treat epilepsy, revealing how each hemisphere functions.

eeg

a technique that measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes on the scalp.

fmri

an imaging technique that shows brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow.

what happens if the cerebellum is damaged?

an individual may become uncoordinated or clumsy, similar to being intoxicated.

what is the main function of the thalamus?

it acts as a sensory relay station, sending incoming sensory signals to the correct areas of the brain.

how does the corpus callosum facilitate brain function?

it connects the left and right hemispheres, allowing them to communicate and share information.

what is the difference between wernicke's aphasia and broca's aphasia?

wernicke's aphasia involves a struggle to understand language or produce meaningful speech, while broca's aphasia involves a struggle to produce speech even if the person knows what they want to say.

what did the phineas gage case study reveal about the brain?

it showed that specific brain areas, like the frontal lobe, are responsible for personality and emotional regulation.

topic 5 sleep

consciousness

the awareness of yourself and your environment, including thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

circadian rhythm

the internal 24 hour clock that regulates sleep and wake cycles.