APPROACHES A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY

Behaviourism

An approach that explains behaviour through learned experiences.

Founder of Behaviourism

John B. Watson is considered the founder of behaviourism.

Basic Assumption of Behaviourism

All behaviour is learned from the environment.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning through association.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally produces a response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially produces no response.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that produces a learned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Pavlov's Dogs Experiment

Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell.

Pavlov's Finding

A neutral stimulus can become associated with a natural response.

Acquisition

The stage where the association between stimuli is learned.

Extinction

The conditioned response gradually disappears.

Spontaneous Recovery

The return of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalisation

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

Responding only to the conditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences of behaviour.

B.F. Skinner

Developed the theory of operant conditioning.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a reward to increase behaviour.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behaviour.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases behaviour.

Skinner Box

A controlled apparatus used to study operant conditioning.

Primary Reinforcer

A reward that satisfies a biological need.

Secondary Reinforcer

A reward that gains value through association.

Behaviour Modification

Changing behaviour using reinforcement principles.

Strength of Behaviourism

Based on scientific laboratory research.

Limitation of Behaviourism

Ignores mental processes.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Bandura's theory that behaviour is learned from others.

Bandura (1961)

Bobo doll study investigating observational learning.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others.

Imitation

Copying observed behaviour.

Modelling

The demonstration of behaviour by a role model.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Learning by observing consequences given to others.

Identification in SLT

People imitate role models they identify with.

Mediational Processes

Mental processes between stimulus and response.

Attention

Paying attention to the model.

Retention

Remembering observed behaviour.

Motor Reproduction

Ability to perform the behaviour.

Motivation

Wanting to imitate the behaviour.

Bandura's Bobo Doll Findings

Children copied aggressive behaviour shown by adults.

Strength of SLT

Explains behaviour that conditioning alone cannot.

Limitation of SLT

Less emphasis on biological influences.

The Cognitive Approach

An approach focusing on mental processes.

Cognition

Mental processes such as memory and perception.

Inference

Drawing conclusions about mental processes.

Theoretical Models

Representations of cognitive processes.

Computer Analogy

The comparison of the mind to a computer.

Input in Cognitive Psychology

Information entering the system.

Processing in Cognitive Psychology

Manipulation of information.

Output in Cognitive Psychology

Behaviour produced after processing.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organise information.

Bartlett (1932)

Proposed that memory is reconstructed using schemas.

Strength of Cognitive Approach

Scientific and supported by research.

Limitation of Cognitive Approach

Machine reductionism may oversimplify humans.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The study of the biological basis of cognition.

Brain Scanning Techniques

Methods used to investigate brain activity.

fMRI Scan

Measures changes in blood flow in the brain.

Humanistic Approach

An approach emphasising free will and personal growth.

Carl Rogers

Developed client-centred therapy.

Abraham Maslow

Developed the hierarchy of needs.

Free Will

The ability to choose behaviour independently.

Self-Actualisation

Achieving one's full potential.

The Self

The person's perception of themselves.

Ideal Self

The person someone wants to be.

Self-Concept

How a person perceives themselves.

Congruence

Similarity between self-concept and ideal self.

Incongruence

A mismatch between self-concept and ideal self.

Conditions of Worth

Expectations imposed by others.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Complete acceptance regardless of behaviour.

Client-Centred Therapy

A therapy focusing on personal growth.

Empathy

Understanding another person's experience.

Strength of Humanistic Approach

Emphasises positive aspects of behaviour.

Limitation of Humanistic Approach

Difficult to test scientifically.

The Psychodynamic Approach

Freud's approach focusing on the unconscious mind.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of the psychodynamic approach.

Unconscious Mind

A part of the mind inaccessible to awareness.

Preconscious

Memories available for conscious recall.

Conscious Mind

Thoughts currently in awareness.

Iceberg Model

Freud's representation of the mind.

Id

The primitive part of personality.

Ego

The rational part of personality.

Superego

The moral part of personality.

Pleasure Principle

The id seeks immediate gratification.

Reality Principle

The ego balances desires with reality.

Morality Principle

The superego judges right and wrong.

Psychosexual Stages

Freud's theory of personality development.

Oral Stage

Birth to 18 months.

Anal Stage

18 months to 3 years.

Phallic Stage

3 to 6 years.

Latency Stage

6 years to puberty.

Genital Stage

Puberty onwards.

Oedipus Complex

A boy's unconscious desire for his mother.

Defence Mechanisms

Unconscious strategies reducing anxiety.

Repression

Pushing distressing memories into the unconscious.

Denial

Refusing to accept reality.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to a safer target.

Strength of Psychodynamic Approach

Recognises unconscious influences.

Limitation of Psychodynamic Approach

Many concepts cannot be tested scientifically.

The Biological Approach

An approach explaining behaviour through biology.

Basic Assumption of Biological Approach

Behaviour has biological causes.