Chapter 4 — Cognition, Consciousness & Language

Cognition

The brain's process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information — much of it occurs below the level of conscious awareness

Information processing model

Views the brain like a computer: it encodes, stores, and retrieves information

Abstract thinking

Develops gradually over time; fully emerges in Piaget's formal operational stage

Biological factors affecting cognition

Organic brain disorders, genetic/chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements, and drug use

Piaget's 4 stages (memory trick)

'Some People Can Fly' → Sensorimotor (0–2), Preoperational (2–7), Concrete Operational (7–11), Formal Operational (11+)

Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years)

Child manipulates environment via circular reactions (repetitive behaviors) to meet physical needs; ends with development of object permanence

Object permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight; marks the end of the sensorimotor stage

Preoperational stage (2–7 years)

Characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration; child cannot yet think logically

Symbolic thinking

The ability to use imagination, pretend play, and make-believe — develops in the preoperational stage

Egocentrism

Inability to imagine what another person thinks or feels; present in the preoperational stage

Centration

Tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at a time; present in the preoperational stage

Concrete operational stage (7–11 years)

Child loses egocentrism, begins logical thinking, and can understand others' feelings and manipulate physical objects mentally

Formal operational stage (11+ years)

Development of abstract thought and systematic problem solving; continues into adulthood

Problem-solving steps

1. Identify and understand the problem 2. Generate potential solutions 3. Test solutions 4. Evaluate results

Mental set

The tendency to approach new problems the same way as similar problems solved in the past

Functional fixedness

Inability to consider using an object in a nontraditional way (e.g., only seeing a hammer as a hammer)

Trial-and-error

Testing possible solutions one by one until one works

Algorithm

A step-by-step formula or procedure that guarantees a correct solution if followed

Deductive reasoning

Drawing specific conclusions from general rules (top-down logic)

Inductive reasoning

Drawing general conclusions from specific observations/evidence (bottom-up logic; e.g., noticing a pattern of allergies)

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions quickly — faster but can lead to errors

Availability heuristic

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fearing flying after hearing about a crash)

Representativeness heuristic

Categorizing something based on how well it fits a prototype or stereotype (e.g., assuming a shy, quiet person is a librarian)

Base rate fallacy

Relying on stereotypes while ignoring actual statistical/numerical information

Confirmation bias

Tendency to seek out and focus on information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

Overconfidence bias

Overestimating one's own accuracy or ability when making judgments

Hindsight bias

After an event, overestimating how predictable it was — 'I knew it all along'

Belief perseverance

Clinging to a belief even when clear evidence contradicts it

Intuition

A 'gut feeling' that influences decisions without conscious reasoning

Gardner's multiple intelligences

Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Musical, Visual-spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Naturalist

Factors influencing intellectual ability

A combination of environment, education, and genetics

Consciousness

Awareness of the world and one's own existence within it; includes alertness, sleep, dreaming, and altered states

Alertness

The waking state in which a person can think, perceive, process, and express information

EEG waves during alertness

Beta waves (active thinking) and alpha waves (relaxed wakefulness) predominate

Sleep cycle duration

Approximately 90 minutes per cycle in adults; REM becomes more frequent toward morning

Sleep cycle order

Stage 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 3 → 2 → REM (or 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → REM)

Stage 1 sleep

Light sleep; theta waves predominate on EEG

Stage 2 sleep

Slightly deeper sleep; theta waves plus sleep spindles and K-complexes (high-amplitude waves)

Stages 3 & 4 — slow wave sleep (SWS)

Deep NREM sleep; delta waves predominate; most sleep-wake disorders occur here; dreaming consolidates declarative memories

REM sleep (paradoxical sleep)

EEG looks nearly awake, but person is asleep; rapid eye movements and body paralysis occur; dreaming consolidates procedural memories

REM sleep memory trick

REM = Remember Motor skills (procedural). SWS = Store Words & Stories (declarative).

Melatonin and sleep

Changes in light in the evening trigger the pineal gland to release melatonin → promotes sleepiness

Cortisol and wakefulness

Cortisol levels rise in the early morning, helping promote wakefulness; tied to circadian rhythms (~24-hour cycle)

Sleep-wake disorders — dyssomnias

Disorders of sleep amount/quality/timing: insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, sleep deprivation

Sleep-wake disorders — parasomnias

Abnormal behaviors during sleep: night terrors and sleepwalking (occur during NREM stages 3 & 4)

4 categories of consciousness-altering drugs

Depressants, Stimulants, Opiates/Opioids, Hallucinogens

Depressants — examples & mechanism

Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines; promote or mimic GABA activity in the brain → inhibit CNS activity

Stimulants — examples & mechanism

Amphetamine, cocaine, ecstasy; increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin concentration at the synaptic cleft

Opiates/Opioids — examples & danger

Heroin, morphine, opium, oxycodone, hydrocodone; can cause death by respiratory depression

Hallucinogens — examples

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, psilocybin mushrooms

Marijuana — classification & active ingredient

Has depressant, stimulant, AND hallucinogenic effects; active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

Drug addiction — pathway & neurotransmitter

Mediated by the mesolimbic pathway: nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area (VTA); dopamine is the primary neurotransmitte