elizabeth

Describe the structure of Elizabethan society and government in 1558.

Society: Hierarchical (Nobility at the top, poor at the bottom). Monarch: Believed in Divine Right (power directly from God) and held ultimate authority. Privy Council: A group of around 19 trusted nobles and officials (e.g., Sir William Cecil) who advised the Queen. Parliament: Only body that could grant Extraordinary Taxation (special wartime taxes).

What problems did Elizabeth face regarding legitimacy and gender when she became Queen?

Legitimacy: Catholics viewed her as illegitimate because the Pope never approved Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon, meaning his marriage to Anne Boleyn was invalid. Gender: Rule by a woman was seen as unnatural. It was believed women could not lead armies, making England look vulnerable to foreign attack.

What problems did Elizabeth face regarding religion, marriage, and finance in 1558?

Religion: The country was divided. Her sister Mary I had burned over 208 Protestants, causing high tension. Marriage: Her chief advisor, Lord Burghley, wanted her to marry to secure an heir, but she refused, leaving succession uncertain. Finance: The Crown was in £300,000 of debt, while annual income was only £286,667. She needed to raise unpopular taxes.

What foreign threats did England face from France, Scotland, and Spain in 1558?

France: Wealthy, powerful, and Catholic. In 1559, England was forced to sign a treaty giving up Calais (held since 1347). Scotland: Mary, Queen of Scots (Catholic cousin) had a legitimate claim to England's throne. Her French mother allowed French troops to station on the Scottish border. Spain: A powerful Catholic rival that had ended its war with France, freeing up both nations to potentially target Protestant England.

What was the Reformation, and what features did Protestants want for churches?

A European religious movement splitting from the Catholic Church. Protestants wanted simpler churches (no stained glass), services delivered in English, ordinary clothing for priests, and a direct relationship with God without needing the Pope.

What three major obstacles did Elizabeth face when trying to change the country's religion?

1. Clergy & Lords: Most bishops were staunchly Catholic, and many sat in the House of Lords, where they could block her laws. 2. Puritans: Extreme Protestants wanted to strip away all Catholic elements entirely and would demand more if given a chance. 3. Geography: The North of England (e.g., Lancashire) was far from London and fiercely committed to staying Catholic.

Explain the three key parts of Elizabeth's Religious Settlement (1559).

Act of Supremacy: Made Elizabeth the Supreme Governor of the Church of England; all clergy had to swear an oath of loyalty to her. Act of Uniformity: Mandated a set church appearance and the use of the English Book of Common Prayer. Missing church resulted in a fine. Royal Injunctions: Clear instructions on worship. Banned pilgrimages and fake miracles, but allowed clergy to wear vestments to compromise with Catholics.

How successful was the implementation of the 1559 Religious Settlement initially?

Highly successful with ordinary citizens and lower clergy: 8,000 priests swore the oath of loyalty (though only 1 Catholic bishop agreed). Elizabeth didn't enforce it too aggressively at first, though 400 clergy were eventually fired by Church courts for refusing to comply.

What economic and papal challenges did Elizabeth face from Catholic powers?

Trade: In 1563, Philip II of Spain banned English cloth imports to the Netherlands, believing merchants were spreading Protestantism. Counter-Reformation: In 1566, the Pope issued an instruction ordering English Catholics not to attend Protestant church services (recusancy).

What was the significance of the Dutch Revolt and the 'Genoese Loan' (1568)?

Spain crushed a Protestant rebellion in the Netherlands, placing a massive Spanish army under the Duke of Alva right across the channel. In 1568, Elizabeth confiscated Spanish gold (the Genoese Loan) that took refuge in English ports, severe infuriating Spain.

What domestic religious challenges did Elizabeth face from Catholics and Puritans?

Catholic Rebellion (1569): Northern Earls captured Durham Cathedral and celebrated a full Catholic mass. Puritan Vestment Controversy: Puritans refused to wear the required robes. When 110 priests were invited to an exhibition to show proper attire, 37 refused and were fired. Puritan Crucifix Challenge: Puritans threatened to resign when Elizabeth ordered a crucifix in every church. She backed down but kept one in her Royal Chapel.

Who was Mary, Queen of Scots, and why was she a major threat by 1568?

Elizabeth’s Catholic second cousin with a strong, legitimate claim to the English throne. After being blamed for her husband Darnley's murder and deposed by Scottish rebel nobles, she fled to England in 1568 seeking help. Elizabeth imprisoned her because she became an instant figurehead for Catholic plots.

What was the Northern Earls Rebellion (1569)?

The Plot: Catholic Earls (Northumberland and Westmorland) plotted to marry the Duke of Norfolk to Mary, Queen of Scots, to overthrow Elizabeth. They captured Durham Cathedral with 5,400 men. Outcome: Failed. Elizabeth raised an army of 14,000. Norfolk was imprisoned, and 450 rebels were executed. The Pope excommunicated Elizabeth as a response.

What was the Ridolfi Plot (1571)?

The Plot: Italian banker Roberto Ridolfi planned to murder Elizabeth, launch a Spanish invasion of 10,000 men, and place Mary, Queen of Scots on the throne married to Norfolk. Outcome: Uncovered by Walsingham. Norfolk was executed for treason. Parliament passed a new law fining Catholics £20 for converting people or missing church.

What was the Throckmorton Plot (1583)?

The Plot: Francis Throckmorton acted as a messenger for a planned invasion by the French Duke of Guise, funded by Philip II of Spain, to free Mary. Outcome: Uncovered by Walsingham's spy network. Throckmorton was tortured and confessed. 11,000 Catholics were imprisoned/placed under surveillance, and a 1585 law made hiding Catholic priests punishable by death.

What was the Babington Plot (1586) and its critical outcome?

The Plot: Anthony Babington plotted to kill Elizabeth and rescue Mary with a French invasion force of 60,000 men. Letters were hidden inside beer barrels. Outcome: Walsingham intercepted the letters, securing undeniable proof that Mary authorized the assassination. This directly led to Mary, Queen of Scots being executed in 1587.

How did political agreements and privateering increase Anglo-Spanish tensions (1570–1585)?

Political: The Netherlands and Spain signed the Pacification of Ghent, but it failed. Spain then allied with France (Treaty of Joinville, 1584). Privateering: Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe (1577–80), stealing £40,000 in Spanish silver from Panama. Elizabeth publicly knighted him, provoking Philip II.

What was the Treaty of Nonsuch (1585) and the 'Singeing of the King's Beard' (1587)?

Treaty of Nonsuch: Elizabeth signed an open declaration of war, sending 7,400 troops under the Earl of Dudley to aid Dutch rebels. Singeing the King's Beard: Drake launched a preemptive strike on the Spanish port of Cadiz, destroying 30 ships and vital supplies, delaying the Spanish Armada by a full year.

Describe the plan and composition of the Spanish Armada (1588).

Composition: 130 ships, 7,000 sailors, and 20,000 soldiers. Plan: Sail up the English Channel, pick up an additional army of 35,000 veterans led by the Duke of Parma in Flanders, invade England, and restore Catholicism.

Why did the Spanish Armada fail? (List tactical and environmental reasons).

English Tactics: English galleons were faster and easier to maneuver. They used 8 fireships to break up the Spanish crescent formation at Calais. Leadership & Supplies: The Spanish commander, Medina Sidonia, lacked naval experience. Due to Drake's earlier raid, Spain used poor-quality wood barrels, leaving food rotting. The Weather: A massive storm hit, wrecking most of the retreating Spanish fleet against the rocks of Ireland and Scotland.

How did education differ between social classes in Elizabethan England?

The Poor: Received no formal education and were trained solely to follow their family's trade or farm. The Wealthy/Upper Class: Boys attended Grammar schools (focused on Latin, Greek, and the Bible) with strict corporal punishment. Noble families hired private tutors. Higher Education: Universities (Oxford and Cambridge) started at age 14, teaching Astronomy, Medicine, Law, and Divinity.

What popular pastimes and entertainment existed?

Lower Classes: Gambling on cruel blood sports like bear-baiting and cock-fighting. Upper Classes: Played real tennis, fencing, and bowls. The Theatre: Purpose-built theaters (like the Red Lion in 1567) emerged. Tickets cost a penny for the open pit, attracting massive audiences of up to 2,000 people.

Why did poverty increase significantly during Elizabeth's reign?

Population Growth: The population surged by 35%, driving up food prices and driving down wages. Farming Changes: The enclosure movement fenced off common land for sheep farming, which required far fewer workers and left laborers unemployed. Systemic Categories: Divided into the Able-bodied/Idle poor (fit to work but couldn't find jobs) and Impotent/Deserving poor (the sick, elderly, and frail).

Explain the difference between the Vagabonds Act and the Poor Relief Act.

Vagabonds Act: Highly punitive. Vagrants caught begging could have holes drilled through their ears, face imprisonment, or be hanged for a third offense. Poor Relief Act: Highly constructive. JPs (Justices of the Peace) provided raw materials like wool to give the able-bodied poor work. Those who refused were sent to a House of Correction. It successfully gave people dignity and reduced vagrancy.

What factors motivated Elizabethan maritime exploration?

New Wealth: Myths of gold-rich lands like 'El Dorado' and massive Spanish mining profits inspired explorers. Trade Networks: The slave trade was established by John Hawkins in 1562, alongside the highly lucrative trade of exotic luxury goods like sugar and ginger. Technology: Introduction of Galleon ships (faster, defensive) and printed maps featuring latitude and longitude made navigation highly accurate.

What problems and achievements occurred during Drake's circumnavigation?

Problems: Suffered a ship mutiny, braved 54 days of heavy storms, and lost all ships except his flagship, the Golden Hind. Achievements: Captured the Spanish ship Cacafuego, seizing 80 pounds of gold and 26 tons of silver. He returned to England generating a £25 million profit and was knighted by the Queen.

Why did Raleigh attempt to set up an English colony in Virginia?

To open up vital new markets for English goods, establish independent access to luxury products like tobacco and sugar, and create a strategic naval base to launch attacks on Spanish treasure ships in the Caribbean.

Why did the first English colonisation attempt in Virginia fail?

Damage & Timing: Their largest ship, the Tiger, was damaged, destroying their seeds and food supplies. They arrived in April 1585, too late to plant crops. Social Tensions: Half the colonists were ill-disciplined soldiers, and the wealthy landowners refused to do physical labor. Native Resistance: Local chief Wingina grew hostile over the colonists constantly demanding food, leading to violent clashes and forcing the English to abandon the colony in 1586.