Modern Korean History

Traditional East Asian Order

The historical system in East Asia in which China held a dominant position, and neighboring states acknowledged China's cultural and political influence. While not directly controlled by China, these states often engaged in tribute missions and adopted Confucian values and practices. Korea was a part of this order and maintained a peaceful relationship with China for centuries. The order was based on the concept of the "tribute system," in which China was seen as the center of the world, and other countries paid tribute to it in exchange for trade and diplomatic relations.

Sadae (사대주의)

The practice of acknowledging China's greatness and influence, often expressed through diplomatic tributes, recognition of Chinese culture, and adherence to Confucian values. It was a key aspect of Korea's diplomacy and relationship with China.

• Korea recognized Korea and the other way around as well.

• Acknowledging the Great Chinese History and the Classics that influenced and partially shaped Korea

Kyorin Relations (교린, 交隣)

• Relations between Korea and Japan, characterized by both cooperation and mistrust. While there was diplomatic interaction, Koreans often viewed the Japanese with suspicion and acknowledged their power.

• These relations existed during the traditional East Asian order and were characterized by cultural exchange, trade, but also occasional conflict and tension.

• t’ongshinsa 통신사 = Korea envoys to Japan

Role of Tsushima

The role played by the island of Tsushima as an intermediary in relations between Japan and Korea. It facilitated contact between the two countries and allowed for trade and exchanges. Tsushima played a vital role in facilitating trade and cultural exchange between Korea and Japan during the traditional East Asian order.

Hermit Kingdom

• western-centric bias

• outdated concept that comes from a fundamental misunderstanding of Korea

• very much holds this bias that Korea was forced to open and didn’t know what to do

• The Europeans wanted to come to Asia but the Asians didn’t want to come to Europe, why? There was nothing that Asians wanted to buy in Europe. At this time, Asia was the center of the world because of China, and Korea was right next to this.

Jehol Diary

A diary written by Pak Chiwon (1737-1805), which emphasized the technological advancements in Qing China during the 18th century. He highlighted these advancements despite Korea's belief in its moral superiority over China.

• The diary provides insight into the cultural and political relationship between Korea and China during the traditional East Asian order. Pak Chiwon's diary shed light on Qing China's technological superiority in the 18th century, which contrasted with Korea's belief in its moral superiority.

• Koreans had a hard time accepting the Qing and considered themselves as more containing the older Chinese history and values

Hendrik Hamel Incident

• 1653

• Hendrik Hamel was a Dutch sailor and employee of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). In 1653, his ship, the Sperwer, encountered a severe storm near the Korean Peninsula.

• Hamel and his fellow survivors were held in Korea for many years, during which time they were unable to leave the country due to Korea's isolationist policies. They were the first Westerners to provide detailed accounts of Korean society and culture to the outside world.

• Hamel's writings, particularly his journal, provided valuable information about Korea during the 17th century. His observations on Korean customs, society, and geography were some of the earliest Western accounts of Korea.

• The Hamel Incident is often seen as an early example of cross-cultural exchange between Westerners and Koreans. Hamel and his companions had to adapt to Korean life during their captivity.

• Hamel's account helped to dispel some myths and misconceptions about Korea that existed in Europe at the time.

"Swaeguk" (쇄국)

• a Korean term that can be translated to "Conquer the Nation" or "Overthrow the Country." It is used to describe actions or movements that aim to overthrow or conquer a nation, often in a revolutionary or aggressive context.

• in the context of the isolation policy of the 18th to the mid 19th century isolation policy where Korea really was a Hermit Kingdom

Wijeong Ch’eoksa (위정척사 - Defend Orthodoxy and Reject Heterodoxy):

This concept emphasizes the importance of upholding traditional values, beliefs, and practices while rejecting foreign or heterodox influences. It reflects a stance taken by some Koreans during a time of increased contact with Western powers, highlighting the desire to preserve traditional Korean culture and resist external influences that were seen as contrary to established norms.

Little Sinocentrism (소중화 小中華)

• The term used to describe the influence of Sinocentrism (the belief in China's cultural and political centrality) on Korean society, although to a lesser extent compared to China. It reflects the awareness of Chinese culture and values in Korea. Little Sinocentrism refers to the idea that Korea was a smaller version of China and should follow its cultural and political model. This belief was prevalent among Korean scholars and officials during the traditional East Asian order.

• associated with Pak Chiwon’s Jehol Diary

Pak Chiwon's Emphasis on Qing China's Technological Superiority

Pak Chiwon's focus on the advanced technology and development in Qing China during the 18th century in his Jehol Diary. He highlighted these advancements despite Korea's belief in its moral superiority over China. Pak Chiwon's diary emphasized Qing China's technological advancements, which was a significant aspect of the traditional East Asian order.

Early Western Encounters

The initial meetings and interactions between Westerners, such as Dutch sailors like Hendrik Hamel, and Korea during the early modern period. These encounters provided valuable information about Korean society and culture to the Western world. Early Western encounters occurred in the 19th century and were characterized by mutual misunderstanding and cultural clashes.

Arrival of Catholicism

The introduction of Christianity to Korea through Catholic missionaries, which led to the adoption of Western religious practices and ideas, sparking religious change in the country. Catholicism arrived in Korea in the late 18th century and was met with resistance from the Korean government, which saw it as a threat to social order and stability.

Isolation Policy

A policy implemented in Korea during the 18th century to actively keep Western influences out, maintaining strict isolationism and resisting foreign intrusion. The isolation policy was a response to the challenges posed by Western powers and aimed to preserve traditional Korean culture and prevent foreign influence.

Preserving the Peace in Korea

• The efforts made by Korea to maintain peace and stability, despite various (small) invasions and interactions with neighboring powers.

• invasions led to a sort of reset of the country, where it could adapt and continue on

• This was achieved through a well-organized court with a central administration. These efforts were often challenged by factionalism and political unrest.

Factionalism

• The presence of competing and often conflicting political factions or groups within the Korean government, characterized by strong personalities and divisions. Factionalism posed a major challenge to the stability of the Korean government in the 19th century.

• when the Joseon first starts everyone is kind of in the same boat, and then people start to get into conflict, competing for power, and one by one these factions lose the battle for court, are cast out and then start confucian academies

• 상소 criticisms of the king not doing the rituals properly, if these go too far they would be a cause of execution but generally they all just have long discussions trying to prove each other wrong

Taewongun (1821-1898)

• Taewongun served as a regent during the minority of King Gojong and was a controversial figure, both praised for his efforts to modernize Korea and criticized for his authoritarian rule.

• A prominent figure in Korean history who played a role in keeping Korea close to its former powers and resisting foreign influences, particularly Catholicism, during the late 19th century.

Treaty Port System

• A system of international treaties that allowed Western powers access to specific Korean ports for trade and economic activities. It often resulted in unequal agreements. The Treaty Port System was a result of Korea's forced opening to the world by Western powers in the late 19th century.

• extraterritorial privileges: creating a legal system that exists outside of the country’s system, with their own courts and own rules - it’s a separate legal jurisdiction

Foreign Disturbances of 1866

Events, including the Sunrise Ship incident and the American ship General Sherman's attempt to navigate the Taedong River, which led to confrontations and violence in Korea involving foreign powers. These disturbances were a response to the perceived threat of Western influence on Korean society.

huge french fleet comes to Korea with 600 soldiers, they block the han river and they burned the documents and took a bunch of books, including the oldest book from Korea, - until 20 years ago it was a big big breaking point between France and Korea

American’s War with Korea

A conflict in 1871 in which Koreans captured American sailors during the Low-Rogers Expedition, leading to a brief war with the United States. The war resulted from the Korean government's refusal to allow American ships to enter Korean ports.

Opening of Japan

• The period during the mid-19th century when Japan ended its isolationist policies and began to engage with the outside world, leading to significant changes in Japanese society and politics. This transformation was a major turning point in Japan's modernization and rise to power.

• Commodore Perry

• 1868 Meiji Restauration

Japanese Aggression before 1876

Japan's actions before the signing of the Kanghwa Treaty in 1876, including efforts to build a modern navy and tensions with neighboring countries. These actions were a result of Japan's desire to expand its power and influence in East Asia.

They were not very succesful.

Kanghwa Treaty (1876)

A treaty signed in 1876 between Korea and Japan, which marked a significant turning point in Korea's diplomatic history, allowing Japan to establish a stronger presence in Korea. The treaty resulted from Japan's growing power and influence in East Asia and Korea's forced opening to the world.

• declared that Korea was a sovereign nation

• authorized opening of Japanese settlements, they were given extraterritoriality, they were give economic privileges etc

• unequal treaty, but it was the fairest trade the Koreans ever had. Because when they were making treaties with western powers they were given much less of a good deal

China’s Role in the Opening of Korea

China's involvement in Korea's diplomatic affairs, including the negotiations leading to treaties and interactions with foreign powers. China's role was a result of Korea's traditional relationship with China and China's desire to maintain its influence in East Asia.

The Enlightenment Faction

A group of individuals or politicians in Korea who were advocates of modernization, openness to Western ideas, and political reforms. They played a key role in bringing about change in Korea. The Enlightenment Faction emerged as a response to the challenges posed by Western powers and the need for modernizati

Gentlemen’s tour of US 1881on.

PROBLEM: Taewongun is still in power and he’s not interested in all of these informations & the gentlemen were all very young, college aged. But when the Korean leadership saw their notes they didn’t take them serious because of their age

Coup of 1884

A failed coup attempt in Korea in 1884 led by reformist leaders aiming to modernize the government and society, although it did not achieve its intended objectives. The coup represented a pivotal moment in Korean history, as reformists sought to drive political and societal changes.

• Kim Ok-Kyun, Pak Yonghyo, Hong Yongsik, So Kwangbom, and So Chaepil

• They were part of a group known as the "Progressive Party" or "Enlightenment Party," which advocated for political and social reforms.

"Sinsa Yuramdan" (신사유람단)

"Sinsa Yuramdan" (신사유람단) is a Korean term that can be translated to "New Community Movement" or "New Village Movement." It refers to a nationwide social and economic development campaign in South Korea. The movement was initiated during the early years of the Republic of Korea, particularly in the late 1940s and early 1950s, after the Korean War.

The "Sinsa Yuramdan" was a government-led initiative with the goal of revitalizing rural communities, improving living conditions, and boosting agricultural and economic productivity in the countryside. This movement was essential to address the devastation caused by the Korean War and to promote the development of rural areas. The movement included various projects, such as land reform, infrastructure development, and efforts to increase agricultural yields.

The "Sinsa Yuramdan" played a crucial role in modernizing South Korea's rural areas and contributed to the country's overall economic development. It aimed to alleviate poverty, promote self-sufficiency in agriculture, and improve the living standards of rural residents. While it was initiated in the early post-war years, its impact was felt for several decades, helping to transform South Korea into an industrialized and economically advanced nation.

The Tonghak Revolution

• The Tonghak Revolution was a significant peasant rebellion in Korea in 1894.

• part of a bigger movement of the people

  • 1894 Tonghak Revolution

    1905 Righteous Army: rebellion against the Japanese

    1919 March 1st movement

    1929 Student protests

    1945 Liberation

    1960 April Student Revolution

    1980 Kwangju Massacre

    1987 Democracy Movement

• agency narrative: how to reclaim history to make Koreans feel they wer ein charge of their destiny

• Key Points:

  • Led by followers of the Tonghak religious movement.

  • A protest against the corrupt and oppressive government.

  • Suppressed by government forces with foreign support.

  • modernization through destruction of the social class system

  • to create an independent response to the arrival of imperialist forces

Enlightenment Faction, Kaehwadang (開化黨)

• Definition: The Enlightenment Faction, also known as Kaehwadang, consisted of Korean intellectuals advocating modernization and reform in the late 19th century.

• Key Points:

  • Influenced by Western ideas.

  • Played a vital role in the Kabo Reforms and other reform movements.

Kapshin Coup

a significant political event in Korean history that occurred on December 4, 1884. It was an attempt to overthrow the ruling government and bring about political change in Korea. The Kapshin Coup, however, was unsuccessful in achieving its goals. The coup failed to seize control of the government and was quickly suppressed by government forces. As a result, several coup leaders, including Kim Okkyun, were captured and executed.

Key Figures:

• Pak Yŏnghyo (1861 ~ 1939)

• Sŏ Kwangbom (1859 ~ 1897)

• Sŏ Chaep’il (1864-1951)

• Kim Okkyun (1851 ~ 1894)

Tonghak as People’s History

• Definition: Tonghak is a 19th-century Korean religious movement founded by Ch’oe Cheu, emphasizing equality and social justice.

• Key Points:

  • Originated in Korea.

  • Popular among peasants.

  • Significant role in the Tonghak Rebellion of 1894.

  • simplified version of complex terms, and made it really easy to understand for the common people

  • Tonghak at the end of the day is just Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism together

Chaju 자주

• Autonomy or Chaju 자주

• Opposite of Sadae 사대 (looking at the Chinese for the ultimate answer)

• Postcolonial reading would say that Chaju would be read as a desire to free themselves from the oppression

  • external oppression from Japanese, Chinese, Russians

  • also internal oppression from the yangban (who conspired with foreigners)

Financial Troubles of Chosŏn

• Definition: Chosŏn was the last Korean dynasty, facing significant financial troubles in the 19th century due to isolationist policies.

• Key Points:

  • Tax exemptions for Merit Subjects, Buddhist Temples and Confucians schools, leading to more people turning into Buddhist monks

  • Military Tax: you could pay your way out of the army, only poor people would get stuck. Also slaves were exempt (20-30% of people)

  • Grain Loans: system of collecting all the rice and put them in grain boxes for like 20 years to like loan it out when there was a poor harvest

  • of course there was corruption and people would mix the rice with sand when they paid with it

  • Corruption and inefficiency.

  • Specific issues like tax exemptions, military tax, and grain loans.

Hyangni

• the interpreters, kept all the registers, can’t communicate directly and has to go through all these local people → they hold all the power. He could be abusing the local population and no one would find out.

• These clerks start to find secondary status groups (less wealthy, illegitimate sons (so-ol, soja) etc) and make them the new elite

  • secondary sons couldn’t sit the exams, couldn’t have access to any of the privileges that their status should be providing them!

  • so when given a chance, what would they do? Squeeze the people for money → It’s a tax farming system - people who collect the taxes can keep part of the taxes.

  • sometimes they were legitimate yangban families but they’d been pushed from Seoul and so didn’t have any wealth

Rise of Ch’oe Cheu

Ch’oe Cheu was a Korean scholar and religious leader who founded the Tonghak movement in the 19th century.

• illegitimate son from a secondary wife and a fallen yangban

• he was highly educated because of his yangban status - starts reading about how the Westerners had invaded China, learned about Western Learning (Catholic); about the Opium Wars

• learned about the Ch’onju and thought this was the source of Western Power, felt like Korea should also have this

• after a vision where he encountered God (Sangje, not Ch’onju) in 1860 he believed that the social order would be turned upside down, that the poor peasants would be wealthy and vice versa.

• Key Points:

  • Emphasized equality and social justice.

  • Popular among peasants.

  • Significant role in the Tonghak Rebellion of 1894.

Tonghak and the Opening of the Ports

Commercialization of Korea was accelerated because of the opening of the ports.

• commercialization of agriculture (rich became richer, poor became poorer)

• rising imports → local businesses getting wiped out

• increasing foreign presence → Chinese merchants on the countryside

• legalization of Catholicism → led to legalization of Tonghak!

Two Types of Tonghak Leaders

• Religious Leaders (Choksa) such as Choe Heu

  • These leaders were primarily focused on the religious and spiritual aspects of the Tonghak movement. They played a central role in articulating the religious beliefs and teachings of Tonghak. Some of these leaders claimed to have had divine revelations and were considered spiritual guides by their followers.

• Military and Political Leaders

  • These leaders were more directly involved in the political and social aspects of the Tonghak movement. They often organized armed uprisings and rebellions to address the injustices they perceived in Korean society. Some of them aimed to establish a more equitable and just government.

Tonghak Rebellion 1894

• Definition: The Tonghak Rebellion of 1894 was a peasant uprising in Korea led by Tonghak religious followers.

• Key Points:

  • Response to corrupt government and foreign influence.

  • Suppressed with foreign support.

Japanese Intervention

• Definition: Japan's growing power and influence in East Asia had a significant impact on Korea in the late 19th century.

• Key Points:

  • Japan's involvement during the Tonghak Rebellion of 1894.

  • Led to the annexation of Korea in 1910.

Kabo Reform

• Definition: The Kabo Reform was a series of political and social reforms implemented in Korea in 1894.

• Key Points:

  • Response to the Tonghak Rebellion and other challenges.

  • Led by reform-minded officials, including members of the Enlightenment Faction.

  • Restructured the government into a modern bureaucracy.

  • Promoted abolishing slavery and distinctions based on status.

  • Implemented rules like the ban on early marriage and the prohibition of adoption under certain conditions.

Kabo Reforms Stages

• Reform Phase (July-Oct 1894): During this stage of the Kabo Reforms, a series of significant changes and reforms were introduced in Korea. The Reform Phase took place from July to October 1894 and marked the beginning of a new era in Korean politics and society:

• Return of Queen Min (Dec 1894-July 1895): This stage of the Kabo Reforms was marked by the significant return of Queen Min to the political scene:

• Aftermath of Queen Min Assassination (Oct 1895- Feb 1896): Following the assassination of Queen Min, this stage marked a period of political and social turmoil

KABO REFORMS FIRST PHASE

Reform Phase (July-Oct 1894): During this stage of the Kabo Reforms, a series of significant changes and reforms were introduced in Korea. The Reform Phase took place from July to October 1894 and marked the beginning of a new era in Korean politics and society:

→ completely restructured the government to look like a modern bureaucracy; based on the Japanese gov. which was based on the western gov

→ Everything the Tonghak says the Kabo reforms actually do

• Push for Reform: The Reform Phase saw the introduction of numerous reform proposals aimed at modernizing and restructuring various aspects of Korean society. These proposals were brought forward to address the challenges facing Korea during this period.

• Min Faction Purge: One of the critical developments during this phase was the removal of the Min faction from positions of power. The Min faction, known for its conservative stance, was purged from the government, allowing reformers to have greater influence.

• Deliberative Council: To oversee and implement the reforms, a deliberative council was established. This council played a crucial role in shaping the reform agenda and introduced approximately 200 binding resolutions.

• Key Reforms: Some of the key reforms initiated during this phase included the abolition of slavery (both private and public), the elimination of the traditional examination system, the creation of a new cabinet with various ministries and bureaus, and the removal of distinctions based on hereditary status.

• Changes in Social Order: The hierarchical ranks between civil and military officials were abolished, and rules that extended punishment to a criminal's relatives were revoked. These changes began to disrupt the traditional social order and privileges associated with the yangban class.

KABO REFORMS SECOND PHASE

Return of Queen Min (Dec 1894-July 1895): This stage of the Kabo Reforms was marked by the significant return of Queen Min to the political scene:

• Triple Intervention: The return of Queen Min began with the Triple Intervention, an international diplomatic event that took place in late 1894. Russia, Germany, and France intervened in Korea to revise the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which had been forced upon China by Japan.

• Russian Influence: Queen Min aligned herself with Russian influence to counter Japanese dominance in Korea. She aimed to regain power and strengthen her position.

• Assassination of Queen Min: Unfortunately, the return of Queen Min was short-lived. She became a target for political opponents and was assassinated in October 1895. Her assassination marked a significant turning point in Korean politics and had lasting consequences.

KABO REFORMS THIRD PHASE

Aftermath of Queen Min Assassination (Oct 1895- Feb 1896): Following the assassination of Queen Min, this stage marked a period of political and social turmoil:

• Escape to the Russian Legation: After the assassination, members of the Min faction fled to the Russian Legation, seeking protection from Japanese influence. This event disrupted the 1894 cabinet of elite reformers.

• End of Kabo Reforms: With the assassination of Queen Min and the fall of the Min faction, the momentum for reform began to wane. The new political landscape in Korea shifted towards conservatism.

• Conservative Backlash: The conservative forces began to regain power, and some of the earlier reforms initiated during the Reform Phase were rolled back. The yangban class, who had lost privileges due to the reforms, began to regain their traditional influence.

Inoue Kaoru

• Definition: Inoue Kaoru was a Japanese statesman significantly involved in Japan's relations with Korea in the late 19th century.

• Key Points:

  • Proponent of Japanese expansionism.

  • Advocated for the annexation of Korea.

  • Involved in the Kabo Reform and other reform movements in Korea.

Return of the Reformers

Key Figures:

• Pak Yong-Hyo.

• So Kwang-bum.

• Kim Hong-jip.

• Kim Yun-sik.

• O Yun-jung.

• forced to work in a marriage of convenience with the Japanese and take over the government.

• Pak Yong-hyo clashes with various other reformers, and they spent a lot of time conspiring against each other.

• these reformers were executed by Kojong because of what he perceived as the ultimate betrayal; he picked all these kids and sent them to Japan to learn, and when they came back they started something that would kill so many people.

Assassination of Queen Min

• Queen Min, the last empress of Korea, was assassinated in 1895 by Japanese agents.

• Impact on Korean politics and relationship with foreign powers.

• Minora’s scheming to assassinate the Queen, Tokyo was largely unaware, but it was Japanese who assassinating Queen Min

• he said Korean killed her, and that the Japanese were just there to protect the Queen - but too many witnesses saw Japanese soldiers with their swords

• The entire Min faction flees to the Russian Legation, and this led to the collapse to the 1894 cabinet of elite reformers

Kabo Reforms and Top-nots

What eventually brought down the entire Kabo Reforms was the rule of the top nots - cultural custom that was a rite of passage for men once they reached manhood, and it symbolized fertility and manhood etc

• Introduction of the "Hair Decree" and its significance.

• Transformation of the Kabo Reforms from an anti-Chinese movement to an anti-Japanese one.

Question of Autonomy in Korean History

• Question of Autonomy

  • The question of autonomy in Korean history revolves around the extent to which external forces, especially Western imperialism, have shaped the course of Korean history.

  • This question is intricate, as it delves into whether Korean history reflects the agency of the Korean people themselves. In other words, to what degree did Koreans have the ability to make choices that directly impacted their nation?

  • Autonomy doesn't always equate to a favorable outcome; the choices made by Koreans may have benefited Korea, but they could also have favored other parties, leading to various perspectives and controversies.

Western-centric Bias in History Writing

• Western-centric bias in Korean history writing is a prevalent issue where the focus tends to lean heavily on Western influences, often diminishing the significance of Korea's own contributions and decisions.

• This bias can be traced back to the West's dominance in the field of history writing, driven by the desire to glorify Western expansion, achievements, and historical narratives.

• It's essential to recognize that historians themselves may have agendas, be it to rewrite a history of national humiliation, celebrate their nation's accomplishments, or promote specific viewpoints.

• During the era of Western imperialism, classifications of people often led to databases and hierarchies that eventually led to various forms of oppression and discrimination.

First in Europe, Then the Rest

• The concept of "first in Europe, then the rest" perpetuated feelings of European superiority and non-European inferiority.

• Historically, it was believed that Europeans developed their economic systems independently, while non-Europeans only advanced due to external influences.

• A contemporary perspective, however, acknowledges that European modernization was closely linked to their interactions with other regions of the world and their expansion of trade.

• European nations became the first participants in the world economy, solidifying their dominance by imposing treaties and agreements on secondary participants, thus establishing asymmetrical power dynamics.

• It's crucial to note that the prevailing assumption during this period was one of inequality, not equality, in international relations.

Korea and Japanese Historiography

• Colonial Historiography

  • Colonial historiography asserts that Korea's development was possible only due to Japanese intervention and guidance.

  • This viewpoint posits that the Japanese employed strategies similar to those of European imperial powers, essentially distancing themselves from the "Asian" narrative by aligning more with Western influences.

• Internal Development Thesis

  • The internal development thesis presents a contrasting perspective, suggesting that Korea could have developed independently.

  • Kim Yongsop's Sprouts Theory, or maengaron, argues that there was already economic development in progress, which was disrupted by Japanese intervention.

  • Scholars, particularly those affiliated with the Naksongdae Research Institute, supported the idea of entering capitalism as quickly as possible. They believed this happened because of Japanese colonialism.

  • A New Right perspective countered the Sprouts Theory by asserting that Japanese colonialism facilitated Korea's development and that it might not have occurred otherwise.

Sprouts Theory (Maengaron)

• Definition: The Sprouts Theory, known as Maengaron in Korean, is an economic theory that proposes that Korea had the seeds of economic development before Japanese colonial rule, but this development was disrupted and distorted by the Japanese intervention.

• Key Points:

  • Origin: The theory was developed by Kim Yongsop (1931-2020), a Korean economist and historian.

  • Core Idea: The Sprouts Theory suggests that Korea had the potential for economic growth and modernization prior to Japanese colonialism. Kim Yongsop argued that the economic progress in Korea was already in its early stages before Japanese intervention.

  • Japanese Influence: According to the theory, the Japanese arrival in Korea caused significant interference in the country's natural economic development. Japanese actions were seen as detrimental to the original trajectory of Korean economic growth.

  • Impact: The theory emphasizes that Korean economic development could have continued independently, but the Japanese colonial period disrupted this path. As a result, what emerged in Korea's economy during and after the colonial era was a hybrid that reflected both Korean and Japanese influences.

  • Historiographical Context: The Sprouts Theory is part of a larger historiographical debate regarding whether Korea's modernization and development were primarily due to internal factors or were a result of external influences, particularly Japanese colonialism.

Opening of the Ports

• Opening of the Ports

  • The opening of Korean ports to foreign trade in the late 19th century marked a significant turning point in Korean society.

  • It coincided with the deterioration of the traditional agricultural system, which intensified the issue of land ownership.

  • The traditional belief that people who had worked on lands for generations had ownership rights, even though these rights were never officially documented, further complicated the matter.

  • People from diverse social classes, including Yangban and rich peasants, were among those who had landownership claims.

  • The opening of ports accelerated social differentiation and led to the eventual collapse of the traditional social hierarchy.

Economy of the Open Ports

• The economy of the open ports was predominantly controlled by a select group of Korean merchants known as the Koch'ang Kims.

• Key players in this economy included landlords, with Samsung being one of the most prominent. Their wealth was largely derived from rice production.

• Violence against Chinese merchants was common in traditional Korea, as these merchants wielded significant power in the Korean region between 1880 and 1905.

• The construction of historical areas in Busan and Incheon was attributed to Japanese involvement, demonstrating their impact on the landscape and infrastructure of these cities.

Koch'ang Kims

• Kim Songsu and Kim Yongsu:

  • Kim Songsu attended Waseda University, while Kim Yongsu studied at Kyoto Imperial University.

  • They were the founders of Korea University.

  • Notable for buying land at low prices and selling it at high prices.

  • During the late 19th century open ports period, they strategically sold land in Jeolla and acquired land near the port cities.

Two courses of Reform

1. Landlord Course:

   • The Landlord Course, which was emphasized by the proponents of New Rights History, focused on empowering the traditional elite class, particularly the landlords and aristocrats.

   • Advocates of this course believed that Korea's modernization and development should be led by the existing power structures within the country. They saw the preservation of the status and privileges of the yangban class (the traditional Korean aristocracy) as a way to ensure stability.

   • This approach was rooted in a conservative perspective that sought to maintain the existing social hierarchy and traditional Korean values.

2. Peasant Course:

   • In contrast, the Peasant Course focused on empowering the common people, particularly the peasants who made up the majority of the population. This course sought to address the socioeconomic disparities and inequities that had long existed in Korean society.

   • Proponents of the Peasant Course believed that genuine modernization could only occur by addressing the needs and rights of the common people, who were often marginalized and economically disadvantaged.

   • This approach aligned with more progressive and reformist perspectives, aiming to bring about a more egalitarian and just society.

Kim Yongsop

• Kim Yongsop was a Korean historian who played a prominent role in the historiographical debate about the direction of these reforms.

• He supported the Peasant Course and argued that empowering the common people and addressing the needs of the peasants were essential for genuine economic and social progress.

• Kim's perspective was aligned with the view that external factors, such as Japanese colonialism, disrupted Korea's potential for self-development and modernization. He believed that Korea had the capacity for self-development, but these opportunities were hindered by external pressures.

Independence Club

• the Independence Club was a group of Korean intellectuals, reformers, and activists who played a pivotal role in advocating for political and social reform in Korea. It emerged as a response to the turbulent political climate in Korea during this period.

• The club's members, including figures like Philip Jaisohn, were influenced by ideas of constitutional democracy, Western-style governance, and independence from foreign control, particularly Japanese influence.

• The Independence Club supported the Emperor's reform efforts, particularly the Kwangmu Reforms. They saw in these reforms an opportunity to modernize Korea while maintaining its sovereignty.

• after the Independence Gate was built they support Kojong to take on the title of Emperor and tell him to get out of the Russian Embassy

Emperor Kojong

• Emperor Kojong reigned from 1864 to 1907 during a critical period in Korean history. He was initially a young ruler who ascended to the throne during a time of growing external pressures, particularly from Japan.

• Kojong, rather than being merely a symbolic monarch, became an active participant in the efforts to modernize Korea. He sought to establish Korea as a modern nation-state and saw the need for significant reforms to strengthen the country's position.

• He initiated the Kwangmu Reforms in 1897. These reforms were a series of political and social changes aimed at modernizing Korea. They included measures like the establishment of a more centralized government, the building of a western-style residence, and efforts to engage with Western countries.

Philip Jaisohn

Background and Beliefs:

• Also known as So Chae-p’il, Philip Jaisohn had a medical degree from Washington University.

• He advocated for a constitutional democracy and was anti-Japanese and pro-American.

• He played a crucial role in connecting with foreigners through English press.

• member of the Independence Club, supported the Emperor's reform efforts, particularly the Kwangmu Reforms. They saw in these reforms an opportunity to modernize Korea while maintaining its sovereignty.

• advocating the independence and westernization

Independence Gate

• The Independence Gate symbolized Korea's desire to rid itself of dependency on China.

• It was inspired by the French Arc de Triomphe and marked a declaration of a Korean revolution.

• The gate signified acceptance of Western ideas, sovereignty, and agency.

• Break from the Past

Kwangmu Reforms

1897: Kojong leaves the Russian Legation with support from the Independence Club and starts building his palace, selects the name Kwangmu Reforms

• The Kwangmu Reforms included Western concessions to the Russians and Americans, emphasizing international involvement.

• A cadastral survey was conducted to assess land ownership.

• Educational reforms were implemented during this period.

Russo-Japanese War (1904 - 1905)

• The Russo-Japanese War had a significant impact on Korea.

• Historians argue that agreements and treaties between Japan, Russia, and Korea were instrumental in establishing the potential for economic development in Korea.

The Fall of Korea

Annexation by Japan (1910):

• The fall of Korea refers to its annexation by Japan in 1910.

• Japan's growing power and influence in East Asia were key factors in this event.

• Japan intervened in Korean affairs several times, ultimately leading to annexation due to its expansionist policies and desire to establish a colonial empire.

The Taehan Empire

Taehan Empire: The Taehan Empire, also known as the Korean Empire, was a short-lived state that existed from 1897 to 1910. It was established with Emperor Kojong as its ruler. The emperor, in cooperation with the Independence Club, sought to transform Korea into a modern nation-state and implemented a series of reforms known as the Kwangmu Reforms.

• The assessment of the Taehan Empire involves evaluating the impact of the empire's reforms, its relations with foreign powers (particularly Japan), and its role in Korea's path to modernization and eventual annexation by Japan. It also likely includes considering the significance of the emperor's attempts to modernize Korea and the extent to which those efforts contributed to or failed to prevent Korea's annexation by Japan in 1910.

Colonial Occupation and Its Interpretation

• During the colonial era, interpretations of colonial occupations vary greatly over time. While the factual events are not disputed, the interpretations and historical perspectives have evolved significantly.

• Colonial occupations, which occurred around the world, have proven challenging to comprehend fully. They range from the occupation of Native American communities in contemporary America to a sort of internal colonization within inner cities.

• In the colonial era, colonialism seemed more black and white, with colonial powers imposing control over occupied territories.

• Social Darwinism played a role in this era. While Darwin's theory initially applied to the natural world, some pseudo-scientists began applying it to human populations, leading to harmful consequences.

Protectorate Period and Ito Hirobumi

• The Residency General, established under Ito Hirobumi, represented a significant step in Japan's colonial plans. Ito's presence in Korea was a sign of Japan's serious intent.

• Initially, Japan's view of Korea was strategic, but it later recognized economic opportunities.

• Ito's assassination by Korean nationalist An Jung-geun contributed to a series of events that culminated in the forced abdication of King Kojong and Japan's direct control over the Korean government.

Early Colonial Policy Under Terauchi Masatake

• General Terauchi Masatake aimed to assimilate Koreans into Japanese culture and society, similar to what had been done in Okinawa, Hokkaido, and the plans for Taiwan.

• Assimilating Koreans proved more challenging than expected due to the distinctiveness of Korean culture and the unwillingness of the Korean population.

• Budgetary shortfalls and lack of infrastructure development further complicated the colonial administration's plans.

Cadastral Survey (1910-1918)

• The comprehensive land survey known as the Cadastral Survey aimed to establish a systematic tax base and rationalize ownership and title for agricultural land in Korea.

• The survey involved requiring landowners and tillers to provide documentation to prove their ownership or cultivation rights.

• This survey marked the end of centuries-old local practices and informal customs that had historically mitigated landlord-tenant relations in Korea.

Resistance to Colonial Rule

• The Righteous Army (uibyong) emerged in the 1910s as a response to Japanese colonial rule.

• It was notable for figures like An Changmo and incidents like the Siminhoe.

• This resistance antagonized relationships with American missionaries and marked a turning point in colonial relations.

• The end of extraterritoriality treaties in 1914 had significant implications for the Japanese living in Korea.

Colonial Cultural Rule

• The colonial era evolved from military rule to cultural rule.

• Under cultural rule, the Japanese administration aimed to assimilate Koreans into Japanese culture, promoting Japanese language and culture.

• There were ambiguities in promises made by the Japanese colonial authorities regarding the status of Koreans.

Mindo (Level of Lifestyle and Culture)

• The concept of Mindo, which referred to the level of lifestyle and culture, played a pivotal role in shaping the colonial subject.

• Cultural differences and emphasis on traditionalism contributed to the formation of the colonial subject's identity.

Saito Matoko and Cultural Rule/Policy

• Saito Makoto served as the Governor-General of Korea from 1919 to 1927 and is known for implementing reforms to improve the colonial administration.

• He relaxed censorship measures that had been enforced during earlier periods of Japanese colonial rule, allowing for more openness in certain aspects of Korean society.

• Saito's reforms included significant changes in education, including investing in irrigation works and agricultural extension activities to boost rice yields. These changes aimed to make more rice available for export.

• Legal matters were also affected by Saito's policies, focusing on areas where Korean cultural sensibilities could be accommodated without diluting colonial authority. These efforts aimed to present a softer, more effective form of colonial control.

Colonial Print Culture

• Colonial print culture in Korea included various publications such as "Kaebyok" (Creation) and "Chosonjigwang" (Light of Korea). These publications were mediums through which colonial authorities could convey messages, promote ideas, and shape public perception.

• Women's magazines were a significant part of this print culture. They contributed to the dissemination of cultural and social ideals that the colonial administration sought to promote.

• Through print culture, the Japanese administration could exert influence and control over information and ideas, contributing to their broader cultural and educational policies.

Colonial Police and Censorship

• During the colonial period, there was an increased police presence in Korea. Notably, the police force was composed mainly of Koreans. This contrasted with the military regime, where Japanese soldiers held more authority.

• Unfortunately, this led to instances of police violence perpetrated by Koreans against fellow Koreans. These incidents became a poignant symbol of the complexities of the colonial era, where some Koreans were tasked with enforcing Japanese colonial policies.

• Censorship during this time was enforced differently for Koreans and Japanese, further highlighting the dual system of governance.

Education Reforms Colonial Period

• The Second Educational Ordinance of 1922 marked a significant policy change in the colonial education system. It aimed to establish schools in every district. Initially, the slogan was "one school for every three districts," but it evolved to "one school in every district" by 1929. However, these changes were still insufficient to educate the entire population.

• Private Christian schools played a role in the colonial education system, providing education to Japanese residents and their children. Graduates from these Christian schools could not access Japanese higher education due to differences in the curriculum.

• Educational reforms during this period were affected by political events, such as the 1942 war between the United States and Japan, which led to the revocation of Christian rights and subsequent consequences.

Local Government Reforms Colonial Period

• Local government reforms in the colonial era involved policies such as the Korean Provincial Local Budget Ordinance (1920) and the Korean School Budget Ordinance (1920). These reforms aimed to grant more authority to local officials, at least in theory.

• The introduction of social work (sahoe saŏp) as part of these reforms reflected attempts to integrate Koreans into the Japanese colonial system while also addressing certain societal issues.

• The colonial education system exhibited variations, with the best schools fully conducted in Japanese. This created disparities in access to education based on socioeconomic status.

Cultural Nationalists Colonial Period

• Cultural nationalists advocated for aspects of self-strengthening (chagang) and self-rule (chach’l).

• These movements represented different perspectives on achieving autonomy or full independence for Korea. While some groups sought greater autonomy within the system, others pushed for complete independence.

• The distinction between self-strengthening and self-rule was important, reflecting debates on the most effective approach for Koreans to assert themselves in the context of colonial rule.

Korean Household System Colonial Period

• The hojuje or Household Registration System played a significant role in the preservation of Korean traditions and culture within the family unit. Under this system, only the head of the household had to be registered, not all members.

• The Hojok (koseki in Japanese) system underwent a significant change in 1909, shifting to a system of individual registration. Census efforts were not completed during the colonial period.

• Many Koreans view the hoju system as a traditional practice, but it was actually codified into law during the Japanese occupation under what the Japanese called "customary laws."

• The complexities of the registration system led to people hiding their children or even leaving Korea to avoid being counted due to the taxation implications.

Kabo Reforms and Widow Rights Colonial Period

• The Kabo Reforms played a role in removing the ban on widow marriage. This change had implications for issues such as early marriage, discrimination against offspring of concubines, and slavery.

• The reforms also involved the expansion of new institutions, including the Ministry of Legal Affairs, which had a substantial impact on legal matters during the colonial period.

• Disputes often arose concerning property rights and inheritance, particularly in cases involving widows. These changes reflected a period of significant social and legal transformation.

Family Law in Colonial Period

• Family law during the colonial period included separate systems for Koreans and Japanese. This was influenced by a survey of Korean customs and traditions.

• The short period in which colonial authorities sought to change family law and customs resulted in differences between the legal system and traditional practices.

• Local variations were erased, and new regulations and practices, especially regarding widows and concubines, complicated family structures.

Family Law and Inheritance Colonial Period

• Family law debates often centered on the distinction between lineage and the family unit, reflecting changes in the concept of family during the colonial period.

  • The debates surrounding hoju abolition were particularly significant. The colonial authorities' influence on family structure during this era sparked debates about traditional Korean practices and their adaptation to the colonial legal system.

  • Issues such as widows and concubines were central to these debates, as they often led to disputes over inheritance and property rights.

  • The Japanese colonial period had a lasting influence on family structure and legal matters in Korea, which continues to impact contemporary discussions about family and inheritance.

How Did the Colonial Period Shape Modern Korean Society?

• The colonial period significantly shaped modern Korean society through the impact of cultural policies and colonial governance.

• One key aspect of this influence was the erosion of local cultural variations. During the colonial era, these local practices and customs were suppressed or replaced by the dominant culture promoted by the Japanese colonial administration.

• Korean identity and culture were subject to significant influence from foreigners, as the colonial authorities sought to assert control over various aspects of society.

• The complex legacy of the colonial era and the struggle for cultural identity continue to be important themes in modern South Korea, as the nation grapples with its history and seeks to define its unique cultural and national identity.

Early Colonial Economic Policies

• Cadastral Survey: Implemented in Korea, doubling the taxable land from 2.4 to 4.5 million hectares by 1918.

  • Problem: The Joseon dynasty's inability to accurately count land, leading to issues such as tax exemptions for confucian academies.

  • Effect: Redistribution of land to those who could make a profit from it; cash economy introduced in Korea.

  • Cash Economy: This survey brought a cash economy to Korea, significantly impacting its economic structure.

  • Income Tax Opposition: Large Korean landlords and businesspeople opposed income taxes.

• Company Law of 1910: Restrictive policies required government licenses for businesses, leading to few companies being established.

  • in contrast to all the effort they put into the development of agriculture, they’re very conservative towards company policies

  • you can not open a business without getting a government license → they deny most applications

    • why? lots of Japanese businessmen will just register a company and don’t do anything with it which created a massive administrative overload!

    • so you gotta know people to get approval. only a few hundred companies were established

• Agricultural institution- agricultural experiment stations, Suwon Agriculture and Forestry School 1918

  • first ones upon in 1906

  • this is now SNU’s agriculture school

  • here they introduce new seeds, technologies, how to use fertilizers

  • introducing Japanese farming policies

  • Japanese wanted to make money! so of course colonialism bad but because they want to make money there’s modernization

Post March First Economic Policies

• Program to Increase Rice Production (1920): Implemented to calm protests and show a commitment to improving agriculture.

• Impact of Commercialization of Agriculture: The shift to a commercial economy led to Koreans struggling to afford the rice they grew.

• Commercialization Challenges: Lack of financial support from Japan and problems with irrigation.

  • Rice Market Challenges: The limited market for sticky rice and issues with rice quality.

  • Rice Quality: Japanese preferred polished white rice, causing issues with the Korean variety.

Colonial Migration

• A growing population and lack of rural opportunities drove thousands of Koreans to migrate to other parts of Asia.

• Korean Migration to Japan - Soaikai: Korean migration to Japan faced resistance, and a Korean job agency (Soaikai) emerged to help immigrants find work.

• Korean Migration to Manchuria - Kando: Around a million Koreans migrated to Manchuria, where they settled in the railroad regions.

• Chinese Migration to Korea - Wanpaosan: Chinese immigrants primarily came from Shandong.

Collapse of the Countryside

• a lot of smaller farmers couldn’t handle the few bad years of harvest and were forced to sell the land to the larger landlords

• everyone who was handling the rice was making a lot of money but not the people actually making the rice

• warehouses were placed on the most convenient locations (next to rivers, ports, in the center of the city) and later on when the Korean economy was booming they sold these warehouses and made excessive amounts of money and are now living in Gangnam

• all of this was happening in a decade, super fast

5 days markets changsi

• Korea has a long tradition of these temporary markets

Tenant-landlord relations

• more and more landlords are moving to Seoul because that’s where it’s at

• absentee landlords

  • previously you’re struggling with the landlords but you have family ties etc so things get sorted out

  • but as they moved to a legal system where people didn’t know their landlord and it led to struggles

Collapse of Mutual Aid Societies kye

• farmers will get together, pool their resources, and let individual people borrow it from eachother

• during the joseon dynasty this was one way that villages could cooperate

• this starts to collapse, and people start running away lmao

Industrialization of Korea during the Colonial Era

• Colonial Industrialization: Notable figures like Noguchi Shitagau and Kim Songsu contributed to the industrialization of Korea.

• Kim Songsu and Kyongbang Spinning and Weaving Company: This company was a major textile producer in the south, with an impact on the labor force, including comfort women

Korea in the 1930s

• Invasion of Manchuria: Japan's invasion of Manchuria occurred in the 1930s, leading to consequences in both regions.

• Collapse of Rural Korea: Rural areas in Korea faced significant challenges and changes during this time.

• Rural Revitalization: Efforts were made to revitalize rural areas, partly through collaborative programs.

• Spread of Marxism: The influence of Marxism, especially among Korean Marxists and academics, was on the rise during this period.

Development of Mass Media

• Phonograph: Japanese companies dominated the recording industry, pushing out global competition.

• Radio-JODK: Korean radio channels were established in the 1930s.

• Cinema: The popularity of cinema grew, with Hollywood movie magazines in circulation.

Late Colonial Korea

• Minami Juo: A key figure who played a role in implementing assimilation policies during World War II.

• National General Mobilization Law: A law to mobilize the population.

• Korean League for Total Mobilization: Pro-Japanese groups that supported the government's policies.

• Assimilation Policy: A policy aimed at assimilating Koreans into Japanese culture.

The Path That Koreans Must Take (Chosŏnini naagal kil)

• Hyon Yong-sop's 1938 Proposal: Stipulated that Koreans should stop speaking Korean, wear kimonos, and live in Japanese-style houses.

• Mixed Responses: Met with mixed responses from the Korean population.

Soshi Kaimei (Changssi Kaemyong)

• Purpose: Encouraged Koreans to register Japanese names to indicate Japanese affiliation.

• Implementation Challenges: Initially, few people complied due to the high cost.

Comfort Women

• Definition: Women, often Korean, who were subjected to sexual slavery by the Japanese military during World War II.

• Controversy and Apology: The issue remains a source of tension between South Korea and Japan, with calls for a formal apology and reparations.

Shrine Visits

Significance: Visits to Shinto shrines were often seen as a symbol of allegiance to the Japanese government and an element of assimilation policy.

Imperial Subjectification

Meaning: The process of making Koreans loyal subjects of the Japanese Empire through policies of assimilation and coercion.

Kōminka (황민화/皇民化)

• Definition: A policy aimed at promoting loyalty to the Japanese emperor and imperial ideals among Koreans.

• Assimilation Efforts: Kōminka was a part of the broader strategy to assimilate Koreans into Japanese culture and institutions.

Total War (총력전/總力戰) / Home Front (銃後)

• Concept: Total war involved the entire nation, including the home front, in supporting the war effort.

• Mobilization: People on the home front were actively involved in the war through various means such as labor, rationing, and civil defense.