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Imperator Caesar Augustus

First Roman emperor; won at Actium; created the Principate; claimed to restore the Republic.

Marcus Antonius

Member of the Second Triumvirate; ally of Caesar; defeated by Octavian at Actium.

Gaius Maecenas

Advisor to Augustus and patron of Vergil and Horace; key figure in Augustan propaganda.

Marcus Tullius Cicero

Orator and statesman; opposed Catiline; defender of the Republic; killed in Triumvirate proscriptions.

Marcus Licinius Crassus

Wealthiest Roman; member of First Triumvirate; death in Parthia destabilized Roman politics.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus

Celebrated general; member of First Triumvirate; fought Caesar and lost at Pharsalus.

Gaius Julius Caesar

Conqueror of Gaul; crossed the Rubicon; became dictator; his rise ended the Republic.

Gaius Marius

General and consul; reformed the army by recruiting the poor; created soldier loyalty to generals.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

General and dictator; marched on Rome; used proscriptions; strengthened Senate power.

Tiberius Gracchus

Tribune who pushed land reform; killed in political violence marking Republic’s decline.

Aeneid

Vergil’s epic about Aeneas; Augustan propaganda linking Rome to divine destiny.

Res Gestae Divi Augusti

Inscription listing Augustus’ achievements; portrays him as restorer and benefactor.

The Civil War by Lucan

Anti‑imperial epic about Caesar versus Pompey; dark tone criticizing Caesar’s tyranny.

War of Jugurtha

Sallust’s history showing corruption in Rome during the Jugurthine War.

Life of Sulla

Plutarch’s biography emphasizing Sulla’s ambition

Life of Tiberius Gracchus

Plutarch’s biography focusing on Gracchus’ reforms and political conflict.

War of Catiline

Sallust’s account of Catiline’s conspiracy; blames moral decay and elite corruption.

Critical Thinking

Evaluating evidence without assuming the answer beforehand.

Principate

System where emperors held power while maintaining Republican appearances.

Empire

Large state ruling diverse peoples through expansion and control.

Ruling Coalition

Groups sharing power such as emperor Senate and equestrians.

Dominant Ethnicity

Main ethnic group with political authority such as Romans and Latins.

Center and Periphery

Rome as core and provinces as controlled outer regions.

Direct and Indirect Control

Direct rule by Roman officials versus rule through client kings.

Damnatio Memoriae

Erasing a disgraced person’s name and memory from history.

Res Gestae

Record of achievements especially Augustus’ inscription.

Imperium

Legal authority to command armies and govern.

Provincia

Territory governed by a Roman magistrate with imperium.

Novus Homo

First in family to reach high office such as Marius or Cicero.

Capite Censi

Poorest citizens recruited into army after Marius’ reforms.

Consul

Highest elected magistrate; two served yearly with military command.

Praetor

Judicial magistrate who could govern provinces.

Aedile

Managed public buildings markets and games.

Quaestor

Entry‑level financial magistrate.

Proconsul or Propraetor

Former consul or praetor governing a province with imperium.

Legate

Senior officer or deputy under a general or governor.

Triumvir Restituendae Rei Publicae

Official title of the Second Triumvirate of Octavian Antony and Lepidus.

Princeps Senatus

Prestigious senator who spoke first; symbolic leadership.

Praefectus Urbi

Urban prefect maintaining order in Rome.

Praefectus Annonae

Official managing Rome’s grain supply.

Consular Years

Dating system naming the two consuls of that year.

Lunar Calendar

Pre‑Julian moon‑based calendar; inaccurate and manipulable.

Julian Calendar

Solar calendar introduced by Caesar; basis for modern calendar.

Ab Urbe Condita

Roman dating system meaning from the founding of the city.