Principles of learning and behavior

law of effect

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

primary reinforcement

stimuli that naturally alter a behavior by meeting an innate biological need (food, water, air, sleep)

secondary reinforcement

a conditioned stimulus that is learned through previous pairings with a primary reinforcer

delay to reinforcement

involves a temporal gap between a target behavior and its reinforcement, usually to teach self-control

establishing operations

used in applied behavioral analysis, things you do to set the stage to make reinforcers effective

abolishing operations

used in applied behavioral analysis, getting rid of a behavior by getting rid of motivational contingencies

drive reduction theory

Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce internal physiological tension and return the body to a balanced state

premack principle

A high probability behavior can be used to reinforce a low probability behavior

response deprivation theory

denying access to reinforcing behavior below baseline by depriving the optimal amount (bliss point) will serve as reinforcement

EBS

electrical brain stimulation-applying electrical currents through the use of electrodes to the specific brain areas to map brain function and activity

DA in VTA and NA

A neurotransmitter serves as the brain’s reward and motivation signal. dopamine is released into the mesolimbic pathway (ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens) pathway is crucial for reward motivation and addictive behaviors by signaling the anticipation of a reward

positive reinforcement

adding a rewarding stimulus to increase the likelihood of the behavior

negative reinforcement

taking away a negative stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior

positive punishment

adding a negative stimulus to decrease the likelihood of the behavior

negative punishment

taking away a rewarding stimulus to decrease the likelihood of the behavior

avoidance paradox

When the animal makes the appropriate avoidance response (escape), the animal learns avoidance behavior in which the animal’s response prevents the delivery of the aversive stimulus, so the behavior is being reinforced by nothing

One factor theory

avoidance learning does not require classical conditioning; instead, it is reinforced solely by a reduction in the overall rate of the aversive stimulus, driven by operant conditioning

two factor theory

Avoidance learning involves two processes, classical conditioning and operant conditioning, where fear is acquired (CC), then the subject learns to behave to remove themselves (Negative reinforcement) from the acquired fear (CS), in which removal reinforces the avoidant behavior

terminal responses

responses that occur late in the schedule interval right before the reinforcement is given

Interim responses

responses that occur in the reinforcement interval and are usually adjunctive behaviors (repetitive, time-filling activities that don’t provide reinforcement)

cumulative recorder

produces a paper graph where a pen moves upward with each response, creating a cumulative total of behavior over time, where the slope indicates response rate

Fixed ratio

The reinforcement is given after a set, consistent amount of responses

variable ratio

The reinforcement is delivered after an inconsistent and unpredictable number of responses that hover around an average

fixed interval

The reinforcement is delivered on the first response after a set, consistent amount of time has passed

variable interval

The reinforcement is delivered on the first response after an inconsistent and unpredictable amount of time

behavioral economics

The field of economic studies that looks at how psychological, social, and emotional factors effect economic decsions

ratio strain

A subject stops responding because the required effort for reinforcement exceeds the actual reinforcement value they would receive

demand elasticity

measures how sensitive a good is to the changing price. Elastic demands motivation can vary (take it or leave it ), inelastic demands prices can increase because it is something you need, so you pay whatever price

sidman avoidance

NO CS, classical conditioning was not necessary for an animal to learn to produce a response to postpone an aversive stimulus; no fear is needed to produce avoidance behavior

shaping

teach new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations that increasingly resemble the final target behavior (small incremental steps)

chaining

instructional technique that breaks down complex tasks into smaller sequential steps (task analysis) to teach new skills

Forward-rewarding/shaping first step in sequence then 2nd step, etc

backward-rewarding/shaping the last step in a sequence and then the second to last step etc.

superstition

a behavior learned through accidental conditioning where a specific action is reinforced by a coincidental reward not related to the behavior

partial reinforcement effect

Behaviors only reinforced some of the time are more resistant to extinction than behaviors reinforced continuously

multiple schedule

two schedules (signaled by stimulus) presented at different times (alternating)

concurrent schedule

two schedules (signaled by stimulus) that are presented at the same time

Matching Law

The rate of behavior is proportional to the rate of reinforcement that is associated with each alternative

s

sensitivity of behavior to the reinforcement ratio

b

bias (less than 1 preference for B against A, greater than 1 preference for A against B)

Undermatching

Response proportions are less extreme than they are predicted to be (closer to 50/50), usually due to failure to discriminate between the two schedules. less sensitive to reward differences s<1

Overmatching

response proportions are more extreme than they are predicted to be (further away from 50/50), usually due to difficulty switching from one alternative to the other. more sensitive to reward differences s>1

Bias

the consistent preference for one alternative or the other independent of reward

contingency

The most effective punishment is when the punishment directly depends on the behavior and occurs only when that behavior occurs

contiguity

most effective punishment occurs directly after the behavior occurs (the shorter the delay between behavior and punishment the better)

manner of introduction

Effective punishment needs to be introduced at maximum intensity to avoid tolerance build-up from starting out small and building up

reinforcement of punished behavior

effects of punishment depend in part on how much reward is also provided. If the reward exceeds the punishment the punishment wont be as effective

reinforcement of other behavior

punishment is more effective when the subject is given an alternative way to get rewarded

motivation to respond

The effects of punishment are inversely related to motivation to respond (when the drive to respond is high punishment is less effective as motivation overrrides threat of punishment)

escape

the recipient avoids or escapes the punishing agent rather than learning the desired behavior (most escape behavior worse than punishment)

aggression

Typically seen with physical discipline can cause increased aggression in recipient

suppression of other behavior

general suppression of other related, often desirable behaviors, where broad inhibition leads to fear of the entire context

abuse of punishment

People tend to punish when angry, which blurs the line between punishment and retribution

imitation

recipients will often model aggressive or coercive behaviors used on them to control others

need for continuous monitoring

punishment is only effective when applied immediately and consistently which requires constant monitoring

response blocking

A person is placed in a safe situation where they are stuck and exposed to the stimulus without making the avoidance response. Trains a subject to learn that the avoidance response is not necessary to avoid the punisher

DRA

differential reinforcement of alternative behavior, reinforcing appropriate alternative behavior while usually withholding reinforcement for the undesired behavior.

DRI

differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior, reinforcing specific desirable behavior that is physically impossible to perform simultaneously with the undesired target behavior

DRL

differential reinforcement of low rate reinforces behavior only if they occur after a specific time interval has passed since the previous response (punished for responding during time interval)