Comparative politics Midterm 2

Nondemocratic regimes typically have:

1. A small group of individuals who exercise power

2. No constitutional responsibility to the public

3. No popular right to choose leaders

4. Limitation of public rights

5. Ideology typically plays a role in(personalistic, military, religious, etc.)

Totalitarianism

A nondemocratic rule that seeks to transform all of society using a “totals” ideology. Typically uses violence to break people and institutions.

Elites role in nondemocratic rule:

Elites in highly unequal societies tend to support nondemocratic rule in order to maintain resources and power for the elites. States tend to become a tool to siphon off resources and to keep power consolidated.

Civil society in nondemocratic rule:

• Tends to be very weak.

• Leaders tend to remove civic groups (cooptation) to consolidate control

How can international relations impact nondemocratic rule?

• War, occupation, and imperialism can all lead to nondemocratic rule

• Poorly drawn borders

• Uneven modernization

• Weak autonomy & Capacity

• International support for nondemocratic regimes

What are the 4 ways nondemocratic regimes attain political control?

1. Coercion & surveillance (use of fear)

2. Cooptation

3. Personality cults

4. Legitimacy

Cooptation

The removal of civic groups to consolidate control

What are the 3 forms of Cooptation:

1. Corporatism

2. Clientelism

3. Kleptocracy

Corporatism

• Limited number of state-sanctioned (state approved) organizations

• No private organizations allowed

• All organizations are connected directly to the state

Clientelism

• Less structured method of political control that corporatism

• Public exchanges political support for specific favors or benefits

• Rent-seeking: parts of state “rented out” to supporters

Kleptocracy

Rule by theft

What is a personality cult?

A leader being promoted as above moral qualities. Typically involves the use of media to portray this image.

Do nondemocratic regimes (authoritarian rule) have legitimacy?

They can have some form of legitimacy

Do authoritarian systems have some form of legitimacy?

They typically do

What are the 5 models of nondemocratic rule?

1. Personal and monarchical rule

2. Military rule

3. One-party rule

4. Theocracy

5. Illiberal/Hybrid regimes

Personal and monarchical rule

Claim that one person is fit to rule the country. The ruer is not subject of the state, but rather its protector. Typically involves patrimonialism.

What form of legitimacy is typically used to justify Personal and Monarchical rule?

Charismatic and traditional legitimacy (Cult of personality)

Patrimonialism

Ruler depends on collection of supporters in the state who gain direct benefits from that rule. Typically used in Personal and Monarchial rule.

Military rule

• Military seizes control of state (Coup d’etat)

• Often justified as a temporary move (instability)

• Often lacks a specific ideology

• Bureaucratic authoritarianism

Bureaucratic authoritarianism

State bureaucracy and military, support “rational” authoritarian rule rather than “emotional” democracy. Typically seen in military rule.

One-Party Rule

• One political party monopolizes power

• Other parties are banned or excluded from power (formally or informally)

• Cooptation is a major feature of this rule

• The party incorporates people into politics, but still a minority

• Party control extends to community

• Benefits are given to party members in exchange for support

• Leadership uses the party to spread propaganda as needed

Theocracy

• “Rule by God”

• Faith is the foundation for the political regime

• Tends to be the goal of fundamentalist

• It is very difficult to achieve

Illiberal/Hybrid regimes

• Posses democratic mechanisms, but they are weakly institutionalized

• Executives typically hold immense power

• Democratic processes are not well respected

• Subject to sudden changes, arbitrary withdrawal (sudden change)

• Media under state control

• State institutions under direct control of government (politicized)

• Often considered a “halfway house”

Is nondemocratic rule in retreat?

People expected that over the centuries democracy would fail, but it has actually expanded. However, the future of democracy is less clear with democratic erosion

What is “The Menu of manipulation about”?

Electoral Authoritarianism and how elections alone do not equal democracy.

Electoral Authoritarianism

Elections exist but fail to meet democratic norms. Leaders seek the legitimacy of elections, without the uncertainty of real competition. Elections used as tools of control rather than for representation.

What are the Fourfold Regime Typology?

1. Liberal Democracy

2. Electoral democracy

3. Electoral Authoritarianism

4. Closed Authoritarianism

Liberal democracy

• Elections

• Rule of law

• Civil liberties

• Accountability

Electoral democracy

Elections meet minimal democratic standards, but lack liberal guarantees

Closed Authoritarianism

No meaningful elections at all

What are the 7 conditions required for an election to fulfill the promise of democratic choice?

1. Empowerment

2. Free supply

3. Free demand

4. Inclusion

5. Insulation

6. Integrity

7. Irreversibility

Empowerment

Elected officials must hold real power

Free supply

Opposition parties must be allowed to compete

Free demand

Voters must access alternative information

Inclusion

Universal suffrage must be respected

Insulation

Voters must be free from coercion and bribery

Integrity

Votes must be counted honestly and equally

Irreversibility

Winners must be allowed to take office and govern

The menu of manipulation (7):

1. Reserved positions/domains

2. Excluding or fragmenting opposition

3. Controlling information

4. Disenfranchisement

5. Coercion and vote buying

6. Fraud & Institutional bias

7. Reversing outcomes

Reserved positions/domains

Limit what elected officials can actually control

Excluding or fragmenting opposition

bans, legal barriers, intimidation, divide-and-rule tactics

Controlling information

Media bias, censorship, repression of civil liberties

Disenfranchisement

Manipulating registration, ID rules, or access to polling stations

Coercion & vote buying

Intimidation, clientelism, threats

Fraud & institutional bias

Ballot stuffing, gerrymandering, malapportionment

Reversing outcomes

Preventing winners from taking office or exercising power

Why is understanding the menu of manipulation important?

It helps scholars detect non-democratic practices even when elections appear competitive

How do electoral authoritarianism use elections?

To signal legitimacy, manage opposition, and stabilize rule

What determines if a system is truly democratic?

The quality, freedom, and consequences of elections

Describe South Africa’s geography

• Harsh and isolated region

• No navigable waterways which has made communication & transportation hard

Describe South Africa

• Established by Dutch settlers (Boers)

• Apartheid era

• Has one of the highest levels of income inequality in the world; land remains largely in the hands of the white minority

• South African Political Parties are highly influenced by race

• High unemployment rates, especially for youth

Who sought suffrage for Black South Africans?

Nelson Mandela (Led the African National Assembly - ANC)

What legislative-executive system does South Africa have?

Parliamentary

What type of legislature does South Africa have?

Parliament

What is the lower house of South Africas Parliament?

National Assembly

What is the upper house of South Africas Parliament?

National Council of Provinces

What division of power does South Africa have?

Unitary

What electoral system for the lower house does South Africa have?

Proportional representation

What chief judicial body does South Africa have?

Constitutional court

What are the main geographic subunits of South Africa?

Provinces (each province has its own elected assembly)

Who is the head of state of South Africa?

The president

Who is the head of government of South Africa?

The president

Who elects the president of South Africa?

The National Assembly

What is the purpose of the National Council of Provinces?

It represents the provinces interests in the national legislature

Explain the RDP programs adopted by South Africa

The RDP programs focused on meeting the basic needs of South Africans living in poverty, but these proved to be unsuitable

What is Growth, Employment, and Redistribution (GEAR) in South Africa?

A plan of liberal macroeconomic structural adjustment

Apartheid era

A legalized system of institutionalized racial segregation and white supremacy in South Africa. It divided inhabitants into 4 racial groups: white, black, colored, and Indian

Political violence

Politically motivated violence outside of state control. Actions carried out by NON-STATE actors, who seek to transform regimes.

What are the 3 causes of political violence?

1. Institutions

2. Ideas

3. Individuals

How are institutions a cause of political violence?

They provide access, instill grievances & facilitate actions

How are ideas a cause of political violence?

Ideas are more amenable to violence. They provide justifications for violence.

How are individuals causes of political violence?

Humiliated groups and under represented groups tend to resort to violence

What are the 2 main forms of political violence?

1. Revolution

2. Terrorism

Revolution

Mass uprising to fundamentally transform the regime

Terrorism

A small group using coercion to seek a change in regime or policy

What are the 3 possible causes of revolution?

1. Relative deprivation - Rapid economic growth creates unmet expectations, triggering resentment

2. Institutions - States weakened by war undergo reforms, creating dissent

3. Organizations - Opponents of regime succeed when they share ideas and have international ties

What are the key features of terrorism?

1. Targets civilians to pressure governments

2. Seeks political goals, such as territory

3. Seek Radical reconstructing

4. Negotiation is NOT possible

What are the 3 possible causes of terrorism?

1. Religious ideology/apocalyptic beliefs - Belief that the end of the world is near

2. Nihilism

3. Humiliation and despair - People get a sense of self-worth by being part of a terror group

Nihilism

Belief that violence is inherently meaningful

What are the strategic goals of terrorism?

1. Disrupt negotiated settlements

2. Prevent political & economic development

How does terrorism differ from Guerrilla warfare?

• Negotiation is not possible

• State is illegitimate, goal is regime change

How can terrorist undermine government legitimacy?

1. Make governments appear incompetent

2. Highlight dissatisfaction

How can terrorist present their views as legitimate?

1. Claim mandate from community or religion

2. State goals in terms of broader principles

What are the 2 goals of political violence?

1. legitimacy

2. ReReligious motivations

Describe the goals of religious fundamentalism

1. Return to (imagined) pristine community

2. Replace political ideology with religious law

3. Reject uncertainty stemming from rapid social & economic modernization

When do fundamentalist typically use violence?

1. During periods of modernization

2. When doctrine can justify dehumanization

3. When beliefs are utopian or messianic

What is the fundamentalist dilemma?

How states should respond to terrorism: Repression or reform

State response to terrorism: Repression

• May eliminate immediate threat

• Leads to more resentment later

State response to terrorism: Reform

• May satisfy some demands

• Can encourage more demands later

“Why we Kill” article

Violence against civilians is instrumental and seeks to achieve tangible political or military objectives

what were the previous views on violence against civilians:

1. Civilian deaths as collateral damage

2. Civilian fatalities the result of ancient hatred/tribal sentiments

What are the new views of violence against civilians?

1. Civilians are intentionally targeted

2. Insurgents coerce civilians into providing support

3. Violence against civilians increase cost on governments in the effort to remove concessions or to change policy

4. Terrorist depend on civilian populations for critical resources

What are the reasons for civilian killings?

1. Lack of discipline

2. Killing to stop the other side from fighting

3. Killing to clear a territory and eliminate the threat of a rebellion

What are the elites (both government & terrorists) motivations to kill civilians?

To shift focus from issues of change to issues of injustices by silencing those who pose a threat to the status quo. Role of political ideas: communist terror

What is an important point about violence against civilians?

It is not always strategic

Describe Nigeria

• A multilingual & multiethnic country

• Has enormous natural wealth from oil to agriculture

• Currently in the 4th Republic

• Zoning

Describe the political development of Nigeria

1. Nigeria was a colony of the British empire and had a gradual transition from colonialism to independence

2. It has had a wide variation of regime types (from authoritarian to democratic)

3. Nigerian Civil War

The Nigerian civil war

Started by a coup where there was a failed bid for independence for the self-declared Republic of Biafra

Who is the head of government in Nigeria?

The President

How is the President of Nigeria elected?

Directly elected by the people. Serves a 4 year term