A&P II Exam 1 (summer)

Sensory pathways are a ……; that relay…

Sensory receptors are …; that monitor

When stimulated, a receptor generates…; that are…

series of neurons; sensory info from sensory receptors to the CNS

specialized cells or neuron processes; specific conditions in body or external environment

action potentials; propagated along sensory pathways

Afferent pathways are …

Somatic sensory information goes to the …; visceral sensory info goes primarily to…

Efferent pathways are…

Motor commands travel from…

somatic & visceral information that arrives at the CNS

cerebral cortex; brainstem

somatic motor pathways that exit the CNS & control skeletal muscles

motor centers in brain to muscles

Sensation is …

Perception is a …; it assigns…

General senses include…

Special senses include…

Special sensory receptors provide sensations of the…; sensory receptors are classified into?

sensory information arriving in the CNS

conscious awareness of a sensation; meaning

temp, pain, touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception (body position)

olfaction (smell), gustation (taste), vision (sight), equilibrium (balance), hearing

special senses; thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, nociceptors

Thermoreceptors sense …

Chemoreceptors sense…

Mechanoreceptors sense…

Nociceptors sense…

changes in temperature

changes in chemicals (blood gases, pH)

mechanical stress & changes in pressure, gravity, cell volume, position, touch, itch

tissue damage, physical trauma, or thermal injury

Receptor specificity is when…

Receptive field is an area …; larger receptive field means…

Sensory unit is a sensation generated by a …

Two-point touch thresholds are when receptive fields can be…

Measures…

each receptor has a characteristic sensitivity

monitored by a single receptor/sensory unit; more difficult to localize a stimulus

sensory neuron and all its receptors

measured by seeing at what distance a person can perceive 2 separate points of touch

tactile acuity

Receptors always…

Receptor potential is when …

The depolarizing stimulus brings …

Hyperpolarizing stimuli bring…

Size of receptor potential depends on…

What are the two types of receptors?

convert the stimulus to an action potential

stimulus changes receptor membrane potential

membrane closer to threshold

membrane away from threshold

strength of the stimulus

tonic & phasic

Sensory adaptation is the loss of …

Phasic is when you respond with a …; but quickly…

Tonic maintains a …; these receptors are always…

Action potentials are generated based on the …; when the stimulus changes, ….

Phasic receptors are normally…; action potentials are generated in…

responsiveness at the sensory receptor level in the presence of constant stimulus

burst of activity when stimulus is 1st applied; adapt to stimulus by decreasing response

high firing rate as long as the stimulus is applied; active

background level of stimulation; action potential general

inactive; response to a change

General sensory receptors classified by location of the stimulus?

General sensory receptors classified by nature of stimulus?

exteroceptors, proprioceptors, interoceptors

nociceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors

Exteroceptors provide information about the …

Proprioceptors provide information about the …

Interoceptors provide information about …

Nociceptors detect…; thermoreceptors?…; mechanoreceptors?; chemoreceptors?

external environment

position of skeletal muscles

visceral organs & functions

pain; temperature; physical distortion such as touch; chemical concentration

Nociceptors are …; they depolarize when…

Common in the …

Nociceptors are concentrated in areas more prone to…; absent from…; what kind of receptors?

They also respond to….

Types of pain associated with nociception? Stimuli can include…

free nerve endings with large receptive fields that detect pain; tissues are damaged

superficial skin, joint capsules, periosteum of bones, around blood vessel walls

injury; brain & sparse on most internal organs; tonic

cellular damage, noxious chemicals & signals released by body

fast, slow, acute, chronic, and visceral pain (or just pain); heat, cold, pressure, or chemicals

Thermoreceptors are …; located in the …

Sensations are conducted along the …; they are…; so they respond most to …

Mechanoreceptors are receptors sensitive to..

Membranes contain …; that …; due to …

Classes of mechanoreceptors include…

free nerve endings that detect temp receptors; dermis, skeletal muscles, liver, hypothalamus

same pathways that carry pain sensations; phasic; temperature changes

physical stimuli

mechanically-gated ion channels; open or close; stretching, compression, twisting, distortion

tactile receptors, baroreceptors, proprioceptors

Baroreceptors detect …; in…

Found in free nerve endings that branch within…; in the wall of …

Proprioceptors monitor the …

Types of proprioceptors include…

pressure changes; blood vessels & parts of digestive, respiratory, & urinary tracts

elastic tissues; distensible organ or a blood vessel

position of joints & skeletal muscles

muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, receptors in joint capsules

Chemoreceptors respond to …

What kind of receptor …; that monitor…

Includes….

Carotid bodies are …; aortic bodies are the …

substances that are dissolved in body fluids

phasic; pH, carbon dioxide, and oxygen levels in blood

carotid & aortic bodies

internal carotid arteries; branches of the aortic arch

Sensory homunculus is the …; it corresponds with…

The area devoted to a particular body region is proportional to the …; & not proportional to the….

Motor homunculus is the…; corresponds with…

Size of the area correspond to the …; what appear large?

functional map of the primary somatosensory cortex; specific regions of the body

density of sensory neurons in that region; region’s size

functional map of primary motor cortex; specific regions of the body

degree of fine motor control available; hands, face, & tongue

Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a …; involuntary control of …; such as…

ANS coordinates functions of what systems?

Autonomic ganglia are…; located…

Somatic is ….; autonomic is …

In somatic, CNS motor neurons synapse w/….; in autonomic, CNS visceral motor synapse w/…

visceral motor system; visceral effectors; smooth muscle, glands, cardiac muscle, adipocytes

cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary, & reproductive functions

clusters of cell bodies of visceral motor neurons that innervate visceral effectors; outside CNS

voluntary control of skeletal muscle; involuntary control of visceral organs

skeletal muscle cells; visceral motor neurons in autonomic ganglia

ANS includes what kinds of neurons?

Preganglionic neurons are cell bodies in…; project to ….; synapse w/…

They are…; found in…; release…

Postganglionic neurons are cell bodies in…; synapse w/…

They are…; found in …; release….

Autonomic nervous system divisions are?

preganglionic & postganglionic neurons

brainstem & spinal cord; autonomic ganglia; postganglionic neurons

short; thoracic & lumbar regions; acetylcholine

autonomic ganglia; peripheral target organs

long; ganglia near the spinal cord; norepinephrine

Sympathetic & parasympathetic divisions

Sympathetic division is known as …

It prepares the body to deal with…; increases…

Parasympathetic division is known as …

It …

fight or flight

stress or emergency; alertness, respiratory rate, metabolic rate & muscular abilities

rest & digest

conserves energy & maintains the resting metabolic rate

Effects of an activated sympathetic nervous system leads to heightened…

increased metabolic….; reduced…; activation of what reserves?

Increased rate?…; increased what rate &what pressure….; activation of what glands…

Effects of an activated parasympathetic nervous system is decreased rate of…; decreased…

Increased secretion by…; increased motility and blood flow in?…; stimulation of…..

mental alertness

rate; digestive & urinary functions; energy

respiratory rate; heart rate & blood pressure; sweat glands

metabolic rate; HR & blood pressure

salivary & digestive glands; blood flow in digestive tract; urination/defecation

Sympathetic (thoracolumbar) division has what types of ganglia?

Sympathetic preganglionic fibers are …; they pass through…

Sympathetic ganglia are clusters of…

sympathetic chain ganglia, collateral ganglia, & adrenal medullae

myelinated; spinal anterior roots & white rami communicates to reach ganglia

cell bodies of postganglionic neurons

Sympathetic chain ganglia or …; is on…

Postganglionic neurons is when one…

They are …; & …; and pass through…

They innervate effectors in the…

paravertebral ganglia; either side of the vertebral column

preganglionic fiber synapses on many postganglionic neurons

unmyelinated; long; gray rami communicantes

body wall, thoracic cavity, head, neck, limbs

Collateral ganglia or …; is anterior to the …

Postganglionic neurons innervate…

This reduces …; by removal of…; also causes the release of …

Collateral ganglia also includes…

prevertebral ganglia; vertebral column

abdominopelvic tissues and viscera

blood flow & energy use; organs not important for immediate survival; stored energy

celiac ganglia, superior mesenteric ganglion, and inferior mesenteric ganglion

Celiac ganglia has postganglionic fibers that innervate the…

Superior mesenteric ganglion has postganglionic fibers that innervate the …

Inferior mesenteric ganglion has postganglionic fibers that innervate the…

stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen

small intestine, proximal two-thirds of large intestine

kidneys, urinary bladder, last segment of large intestine, sex organs

Adrenal medulla is the modified…

Neurons release …; or …; into the …

Neurotransmitters function as …; to affect…; these effects last …; than those produced by…

Crisis response leads to…

sympathetic ganglion at the center

epinephrine (adrenaline); norepinephrine (noradrenaline); blood

hormones; metabolic activities; much longer; direct sympathetic innervation

sympathetic activation

Sympathetic activation is when the …

Effects of sympathetic activation is increased…; feelings of …; increased…

Also elevation of …; mobilization of…

Sympathetic preganglionic neurons releases …; synapses that use ACh are..; effect is …

Sympathetic postganglionic neurons release…; synapses that use NE are called…

entire sympathetic division responds

alertness; energy & euphoria; BP, HR, breathing, depth of respiration

muscle tone; energy reserves

acetylcholine (ACh) at ganglia; cholinergic; always excitatory

norepinephrine (NE) at target organs; adrenergic

Adrenergic receptors are …; that bind to …

Classes of adrenergic receptors are…

membrane G-protein-coupled receptors; norepinephrine and epinephrine

alpha receptors & beta receptors

Alpha-1 receptors are more…; found primarily in…; stimulation has..; which is release of…

Alpha-2 receptors are found on both …; stimulation lowers..; what effect?

Alpha-2 receptors coordinates activities of the …

common; smooth muscle cells; excitatory effect; intracellular calcium ions

pre & postsynaptic sympathetic & parasympathetic neurons; cAMP levels in cytoplasm; inhibitory

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Beta receptors are located in…

Stimulation increases…

Types of beta receptors?

skeletal muscles, lungs, heart, liver

cAMP levels & triggers changes in metabolic activity

Beta-1, Beta-2, & Beta-3 receptors

Beta-1 receptors increase…

Beta-2 receptors are involved in …

Beta-3 receptors are involved in…; which is the …

metabolic activity in muscles and heart

dilation of respiratory passageways

lipolysis; breakdown of triglycerides in adipocytes

Alpha 1 receptors are involved in…; commonly found in…

Alpha 2 receptors are involved in…; commonly found in…

Beta 1 receptors are involved in…; commonly found in…

Beta 2 receptors are involved in…; commonly found in…

excitation; vascular smooth muscle, eyes, GI/GU sphincters

relaxation; vascular smooth muscles, GI system, skin, mucosa

excitation; heart, kidneys

relaxation; eyes, blood vessels, lungs, liver, pancreas, GI/GU systems

Parasympathetic (craniosacral) division includes…

Preganglionic neurons are …; cell bodies are in…; release…

Postganglionic fibers are…; cell bodies in ganglia are within…; also known as…; release…

Vagus nerve provides …; of all…

Fibers that leave the sacral segments of the spinal cord form…

preganglionic neurons & postganglionic fibers

long; brainstem & sacral regions; acetycholine

short; target organs; terminal ganglia; acetylcholine

75%; parasympathetic output

pelvic nerves

Parasympathetic activation leads to constriction of …; focusing on …

Secretion by what glands…; secretion of hormones that promote absorption & use of…

Increased activity of what muscle …; stimulation and coordination of ..; contraction of…

Constriction of what passageways …; reduction in rate of…; reduce force of ..

pupils; lenses on near objects

digestive; nutrients

smooth muscle along digestive tract; defecation; urinary bladder during urination

respiratory; heart; contraction

All parasympathetic neurons release…; most ACh is inactivated at the …

ACh that diffuses into surrounding tissues is …; name of receptors for ACh?

Parasympathetic receptor types include?

Nicotinic receptors is a …; activation by ACh causes …; binds to …

Muscarinic receptors are…; response can be ..; binds to …; or …

ACh; synapsę by acetycholinesterase (AChE)

inactivated by tissue cholinesterase; cholinergic receptors

nicotinic and muscarinic receptors

chemically gated NA+ channel; excitation of postganglionic neuron; nicotine

G protein-coupled receptors; excitatory or inhibitory; muscarine; poisonous mushrooms

Higher-order functions share…

Require the …; involve…; subject to …; not…

Memories are ….; two types are…

Fact memories are …

Skill memories are …; incorporated …; complex skill memories involve…

3 characteristics

cerebral cortex; conscious & unconscious info processing; adjustment over time; innate

stored info gathered through experience; fact & skill memories

specific bits of factual information

learned motor behaviors; unconsciously w/ repetition; integration of motor patterns

Short-term memories do not…; but the information can be…

Contains …; includes …; which is the conversion of a …; involves …

Long term memories are …; Includes …

Secondary memories …; tertiary memories …

Amygdala & hippocampus are essential for…; cerebral cortex stores…

last long; recalled immediately

small bits of info; memory consolidation; short-term memory into long-term memory; repeating info

long-lasting memories; secondary & tertiary memories

fade with time & require effort to recall; last for a lifetime & don’t fade

memory consolidation; most long-term memories

Memory engram is a single…

Forms as result of …; takes at least …; determined by ….; of the …

Also determined by drugs that …

How many types of states of consciousness are there? Name them

circuit that corresponds to a single long-term memory

experience & repetition; an hour to form; nature, intensity, & frequency; original stimulus

stimulate the CNS (caffeine, nicotine) may enhance memory consolidation

2; conscious & unconscious states

Conscious state implies an..; varying…

Unconscious state is an …

What are the two types of sleep?

awareness of & attention to external events/stimuli; degrees of conscious state exist

unresponsive state which can be light or deep

Deep sleep & rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

In deep sleep, the entire body…; cerebral cortex activity is at a …; what declines up to 30%?

REM sleep is where …; eyes move…; what fluctuates?

REM is the intense inhibition of …; EEG resembles…

relaxes; minimum; heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and energy use

active dreaming occurs; rapidly; blood pressure & respiratory rate

somatic motor neurons; awake state

Serotonin affects …; selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are …; that slow the …

Norepinephrine is used throughout …; stimulation of NE cause…; inhibition of NE causes…

Dopamine is important in controlling…; inadequate levels of dopamine is found in the disease…

Excessive production of dopamine is found in disease? amphetamines stimulate…

sensory interpretation & emotional states; antidepressants; removal of serotonin at synapses

brain; exhilaration; depression

intentional movements; Parkinsons

schizophrenia; dopamine secretion

Special senses include…

Olfaction is the sense of…; olfactory organs are in the …; how many layers?; which are?

Odorants are small…; which …

Olfactory epithelium covers parts of the …; the …; and the …

Contains …; which is the ..; contains …

olfaction, gustation (taste), vision, equilibrium (balance), & hearing

smell; nasal cavity; 2; olfactory epithelium & lamina propria

airborne substances; stimulate olfactory receptors

cribriform plate; perpendicular plate; superior nasal conchae of ethmoid

lamina propria; underlying olfactory epithelium; areolar tissue, blood vessels, nerves, olfactory glands

Olfactory receptor is a modified …

Various parts of an odor are detected by …; separate components of an odor are sorted into…

Odor discrimination is coded by patterns of …

People can distinguish bt …; sensitivity to different smells varies…

Olfactory neurons are replaced…; total number of olfactory neurons …

neuron with multiple cilia-shaped dendrites

different olfactory receptors & sorted into smell files; different glomeruli

activity in the olfactory bulb glomeruli

2000 & 4000 odorants; widely

frequently from basal cells in epithelium; declines with age

Gustation is the sense of …; provides info about …

Taste receptor cells or …; are found in …; distributed on…

Gustatory transduction is dependent on the …

We are more sensitive to …; such as …; than to …; such as…

Taste sensitivity differs …; it is often…; PTC can taste…; but have …

Children have more…; number of taste receptors begins…

taste; foods & liquids consumed

gustatory epithelial cells; taste buds; superior surface of the tongue

type of taste receptor involved

unpleasant tastes; bitter & sour; pleasant tastes; sweets

significantly; inherited; bitter to some; no taste for others

taste receptors than adults; declining rapidly at age 50

Eyes are our organs for …; accessory structure provide…

Eyelids or …; is the …; blinking keeps the surface of eye…; closing eyelids does what?

Palpebral fissure is the gap that…

Eyelids are connected at the …

Medial angle is also known as…; lateral angle is also known as…

vision; protection, lubrication, support

palpebrae; continuation of skin; lubricated and clean; protects the eye

separates the upper & lower eyelids

medial & lateral angle

medial canthus; lateral canthus

Lacrimal gland or …; continuously produces…

Tears are …; that contain…; which is an…

Tears function to keep anterior surface…; reduce…; remove..; and prevent…

Anterior cavity contains…; posterior cavity contains a …

Fibrous layer is the …; vascular layer is the ….; inner layer (retina) is the…

tear gland; tears

alkaline secretions; lysozyme; antibacterial enzyme

moist & clean; friction; debris; infection

clear watery aqueous humor; gelatinous vitreous body

outermost layer; middle layer; deep inner layer

Sclera is the …; which covers …; apart of what layer?

Cornea is the transparent …; has no…; has restricted ability for …; damage can cause…; ex of surgery

Vascular layer is …; provides a route for…; regulates the …; controls the …

Choroid is a …; with …; to deliver…

white of the eye; most of ocular surface; fibrous layer

anterior portion; blood vessels; repair; blindness; corneal transplant

pigmented; blood vessels; amount of light entering the eye; shape of the lens

vascular layer; capillaries; oxygen & nutrients to the retina

Pupillary muscles include…

Iris is a …; it is visible behind the…

Sphincter pupillae are pupillary muscles that…

Ciliary body includes….

iris, dilator pupullae, and sphincter pupillae

pigmented ring structure; cornea

change the diameter of the pupil

ciliary muscle, ciliary processes, ciliary zonule

Ciliary muscle is the ring of…; ciliary processes are folds in the …

Ciliary zonule or…; are fibers that…

smooth muscle that project into interior of eye; epithelium covering smooth muscle

suspensory ligament; attach lens to ciliary processes

Inner layer (retina) consists of…

Pigmented layer absorbs …; that passes through the…

Neural layer contains…

Photoreceptors include …

pigmented layer & neural layer

light; neural layer & prevents it from reflecting back

photoreceptors (outer layer)

rods & cones

Rods are highly …; allow …; more …

Cones provide …; which require…; densely clustered in an area called the …

Macula includes …

Fovea centralis (fovea) is at the…; it is the site of …

Visual axis of the eye is an …

sensitive to light; low light vision (no colors); numerous & dense on periphery of retina

sharp color vision; more light; macula

fovea centralis (fovea)

center of the macula; sharpest color vision

imaginary line from center of an object through lens to fovea

Retina is organized with how many cell types? what are they?

Bipolar cells are neurons that …; ganglion cells are neurons that..

Axons of the ganglion cells form the…

Optic disc is the origin of …; it is on the …; just medial to the…; no…

2; bipolar & ganglion cells

synapse with the rods and cones; synapse with bipolar cells

optic nerve

optic nerve; posterior side of the eyeball; fovea; photoreceptors (blind spot)

Diabetic retinopathy is the disease of the …; that develops in people with…; which is…

Also due to …

Detached retina is when the …; is separated from the …; which kills the …; because they are…

Aqueous humor is a ….; that …; for …

It is secreted by the …; passes from …; drained through the…

retina; diabetes mellitus; blockage of small retinal blood vessels

overgrowth of abnormal vessels

neural layer; pigmented layer; photoreceptors; deprived of blood supply

fluid; circulates through anterior cavity; nutrient & waste transport

ciliary processes; posterior to anterior chamber through pupil; scleral venous sinus

Intra-ocular pressure is …; due to the…

Glaucoma is impaired…; through the …

This leads to an increase in…

Lens focuses an image on the retina by…

pressure inside the anterior chamber; presence of aqueous humor

drainage of aqueous humor; scleral venous sinus

intra-ocular pressure that can damage the optic nerve

changing its shape

Refraction is when light is …

in the eye, light is refracted by the …; lens refracts the …; from an object toward a …

Focal point is a …

Accommodation is the …

Lens can change shape by becoming…; to focus on…; or becoming…; to focus on…

bent as it passes from one medium to another

cornea first and then the lens; light rays; focal point

specific point of intersection of light rays on the retina

automatic adjustment of eye to provide clear vision

rounder; nearby objects; flatter; distant objects

When ciliary muscles relax, the ciliary zonule…

When ciliary muscles contract, the tension in the ciliary zonule…

Emmetropia is …; myopia is…; hyperopia is…

Auricle or …; is the outer…; apart of the…

It surrounds and protects the …; or ….; provides …

pulls on the lens

decreases

normal vision; nearsightedness; farsightedness

pinna; fleshy cartilaginous portion of the ear; external ear

external acoustic meatus; auditory canal; directional sensitivity & channels sound into canal

Tympanic membrane or…; is a …; apart of the…

It vibrates and…; separates the …

Includes…; which secretes a …; known as …

These glands protects the…; also slows the…

eardrum; thin, semi-transparent sheet at the end of auditory canal; external ear

transmits sounds to the middle ear; external ear from middle ear

ceruminous glands; waxy material; cerumen

eardrum from foreign objects; growth of microorganisms

Auditory tube connects the …; permits …; apart of the…

Auditory ossicles connect the…; includes …

Malleus or…; is attached to the …

Incus or …; is attached to the…

Stapes or…; attaches to the…

middle ear with the nasopharynx; equalization of pressure; middle ear

tympanic membrane to internal ear; malleus, incus, stapes

hammer; tympanic membrane

anvil; malleus and stapes

stirrup; oval window

Muscles of the middle ear include…

Tensor tympani pulls on the…; stapedius reduces…

Internal ear includes…; membranous labyrinth includes…

Bony labyrinth is continuous with the …; membranous labyrinth is a network of…

Perilymph is fluid between the…; endolymph is fluid within the …

tensor tympanic & stapedius

malleus & stiffens tympanic membrane; movement of stapes at oval window

bony labyrinth, membranous labyrinth; perilymph & endolymph

temporal bone (vestibule, semicircular canals, cochlea); fluid-filled tubes

two labryinths; membranous labyrinth

Vestibule consists of the …; provides …

Semicircular canals are …; provide…

Cochlea is a …; provides…

Round window is membranous partition that …; oval window is membranous partition bt …

saccule & utricle; equilibrium sensation

3 canals that contain semicircular ducts; equilibrium sensation

spiral-shaped bony chamber; sense of hearing

absorbs acoustic energy; cochlea and the stapes

Equilibrium is …

Equilibrium sensations are detected by…

Hair cells are …; that provide …

Hair cells of semicircular ducts detect…; hair cells in vestibule detect …; with respect to …

state of physical balance

receptors in the vestibular complex (vestibule & semicircular canals)

sensory receptors; info about direction & strength of mechanical stimuli

rotational movement of the head; body position; gravity & acceleration or deceleration

Semicircular canals include what ducts?

Ampulla is the …; ampullary crest contains the…

Ampullary cupula is the …

Hair cells have…; also have a …; stereocilia and kinocilium are embedded in the…

anterior, posterior, and lateral ducts

expanded region in each duct; hair cells & supporting cells

gelatinous structure bound to the ampullary crest

80-100 stereocilia on free surface; single large kinocilium; ampullary cupula

Endolymph movement is when the head moves, endolymph inside the…; moves the…

Bending toward the kinocilium results in…

Otolithic membrane is a…; where the…

Otoliths or …; are …; on the surface of the…

semicircular canals; ampullary cupula & stereocilia

hair cell stimulation (depolarization)

gelatinous structure; stereocilia of hair cells are embedded

ear stones; calcium carbonate crystals; otolithic membrane

Head tilting or linear acceleration moves the…; and bends the…

Hearing is the …; sound waves are converted into …

Auditory ossicles conduct …

In the internal ear, vibrations are converted to …; and detected by…

otolithic membrane; stereocilia of hair cells

detection of sound; mechanical movements by vibration of tympanic membrane

vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the internal ear

pressure waves in fluid; hair cells in cochlear duct

Sound is …; frequency is the …; measured in…

High frequency = …; low frequency = …

Amplitude is the …; intensity is …; reported in…

waves of pressure; number of waves; hertz

high pitch; low pitch

height of a sound wave; loudness; decibels

Cochlear duct or …; is a …

Lies between …

Scala vestibuli or ..; is …

Scala tympani or…; is a …

scala media; chamber filled with endolymph

two chambers filled with perilymph

vestibular duct; oval window is at the base

tympanic duct; round window at the base

Organ of Corti or …; is inside the…; contains the…

Rests on the …; there are …; stereocilia of the hair cells contact the…

High-frequency sounds vibrate the…; low-frequency sounds travel…

The location of the basilar membrane vibration translates to…

spiral organ; cochlear duct; hair cells that detect sound

basilar membrane; several rows of hair cells; overlying tectorial membrane

basilar membrane near oval window; further

information about pitch

Mechanisms of intercellular communication?

Direct communication occurs between…

Paracrine communication are when chemical messengers…

Autocrine communication are when chemical messengers …

Hormones are chemical messengers that…; target cells have…

direct, paracrine, and autocrine communication

two cells in physical contact

transfer info from cell to neighboring cell within the same tissue

affect the same cells that secrete them

travel in blood reach distant target cells; receptors for the hormone

Synaptic communication is when neurons …

This allows for …

Nervous regulation …; endocrine regulation is; both rely on chemicals that…

Chemicals can be …; if released into the…

Both systems are mainly regulated by…; objective of both is to …

communicate to other cells by releasing neurotransmitters at a synapse

high-speed messages to reach specific destinations

faster but short-lived; slower but long-lasting; bind to specific receptors on target cells

hormones; bloodstream & neurotransmitters if released across a synapse

negative feedback; regulate homeostasis and often work together

Endocrine system include…; that produce…

Endocrine cells release….; exocrine cells release…

Hormones regulate …

Hormones regulate…; variety in…; released in…; movement through…; bind to….

endocrine cells, tissues, and organs; hormones

secretions into extracellular fluid (blood); secretions onto epithelial surfaces via ducts

growth & development, reproduction, cell metabolism, body water content, mobilize defenses

physiological processes; chemical structure; low quantities; diffusion; receptors

Pituitary gland also known as…; lies within the…; inferior to the..

Connected by the…; has a…

Hypothalamus regulates the …; synthesizes hormones released at the…

Secretes…; that control the activity of the…

hypophysis; sella turcica; hypothalamus

infundibulum; anterior & posterior lobe

pituitary anterior & posterior lobes; posterior pituitary gland

regulatory hormones; anterior pituitary gland

Hypothalamus is located…; part of what system…; contains…; is …

Hypophyseal portal system connects…

Anterior lobe or …; has hormones that …

Pars tuberalis wraps around the…; pars distalis is the…; pars intermedia is a…

Hypophyseal portal system is a …; that carries…

inferior to thalamus; limbic; many nuclei that produce unique hormones; sexually dimorphic

hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

adenohypophysis; control other endocrine glands

infundibulum; largest most anterior region; narrow band bordering posterior lobe

capillary network; hormones from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary

Classes of hypothalamic regulatory hormones are…

Releasing hormones (RH) stimulates…

Inhibiting hormones (IH) prevents…

Rate of secretion is controlled by..; hormones from hypothalamus…

Hormones of anterior lobe of pituitary

releasing hormones (RH) & inhibiting hormones (IH)

secretion of hormones from the anterior lobe

secretion of hormones from the anterior lobe

negative feedback; TRH & TSH

TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL, GH, MSH

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (thyrotropin) release is stimulated by…

It stimulates the release of…

Adrenocroticotropic hormone (ACTH) release is stimulated by….; stimulates release of …

Gonadotropins is when production is stimulated by…

thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus

thyroid hormones from thyroid gland

corticotropin-releasing hormone from hypothalamus; glucocorticoids from adrenal gland

gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in females promote…; secretes…; in males, stimulates…

Luteinizing hormone (LH) in female induces …; secretes…; male stimulates production of…

Prolactin (PRL) release is stimulated by…; release inhibited by…

This stimulates …

ovarian follicle development; estrogens; sperm production

ovulation; estrogens & progesterone; androgens

prolactin-releasing hormone from hypothalamus; prolactin-inhibiting hormone from hypothalamus

mammary gland development and milk production in females

Growth hormone (GH) or…; GH release is stimulated by…; inhibited by…

Stimulates…

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) is secreted by…; during…; in who?

Stimulates…; what inhibits the release of MSH?

somatotropin; growth hormone-releasing hormone; growth hormone-inhibiting hormones

cell growth & division especially in muscles and bones

pars intermedia; fetal development; young children, pregnant females, in some diseases

melanin production; dopamine

Posterior lobe is …; contains…; which release…

Hormones of posterior lobe?

Oxytocin (OXT) stimulates the…; ejection of…

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin stimulates the…

Alcohol inhibits …; diabetes insipidus is a disease characterized by…

neurohypophysis; axons of hypothalamic neurons; hormones in capillaries of posterior lobe

oxytocin & vassopressin

contraction of uterus during labor; milk

kidneys to retain water which increases blood volume & pressure

ADH release; excessive thirst & urination due to low ADH levels

Thyroid gland lies inferior to the …; consists of …

Contains …; which are…; follicle cavity contains a …

Thyroxine (T3) & triiodothyronin (T4) is stimulated by…

Increases the rate of …; & …

Also increases …; by activating…; causes an increase in…

thyroid cartilage of the larynx; two lobes connected by an isthmus

thyroid follicles; hollow spheres; viscous colloid

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

oxygen consumption; ATP production by mitochondria

metabolic rate of cell; genes involved in energy use, ATP, glycolysis; BP, HR, & contraction force

Calcitonin (CT) is produced by…; stimulates the excretion of …; causes a decrease in…

What cells release thyroxin? What cells release calcitonin?

Parathyroid glands are …; embedded in the …

Parathyroid (principal) cells secrete …; in order to increase…

Adrenal glands are …; have a superficial…; inner…

C cells; calcium ions by kidneys; calcium ion absorption by digestive tracts

follicular cells; parafollicular cells

four small glands; posterior surface of the thyroid gland

parathyroid hormone (PTH); blood calcium

superior to each kidney; adrenal cortex; adrenal medulla

Corticosteroids include…

Outer zona glomerulosa produces…;middle zone fasciculata…; inner zone reticularis…

Mineralocorticoids include…

Aldosterone is the…; conserves…

Cortisol is the …; stimulated by…; androgens are the …

outer zona glomerulosa, middle zona fasciculata, & inner zona reticularis

mineralocorticoids; glucocorticoids; small quantities of androgens

aldosterone, cortisol, androgens

main mineralocorticoid; Na+

main glucocorticoid; ACTH from anterior pituitary gland; main male sex hormones

Adrenal medulla releases …; includes…

Pineal gland is the…; pinealocytes are cells that use…; influences…

Pancreas is a …; that lies in the …; mostly…; contains…

Pancreatic hormones includes…

Exocrine pancreas consists of cell clusters called…; endocrine pancreas have cell clusters…

catecholamines upon sympathetic stimulation; epinephrine & norepinephrine

main part of epithalamus; serotonin to synthesize hormone melatonin; circadian rhythms

large gland; loop bt stomach & small intestine; retroperitoneal; exocrine & endocrine cells

exocrine & endocrine pancreas

pancreatic acini; pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)

Pancreatic hormones include…

Insulin is released by…; in response to…; decreases…; moves glucose from…

Glucagon is released by…; in response to…; increases…; what releases stored glucose?

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by…

Hyperglycemia is abnormally…; glycosuria is the presence of…; polyuria is …; caused by…

insulin & glucagon

beta cells; high blood glucose levels; blood glucose; blood to cells

alpha cells; low blood glucose; liver

hyperglycemia, glycosuria, polyuria

high glucose levels in blood; glucose in urine; excessive urine volume; inadequate insulin

Type 1 diabetes mellitus is characterized by …

Patients require …; or continuous …; usually develops in…

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is most…; normal insulin but …; associated with…

Treatment consists of …

inadequate insulin production by pancreatic beta cells

daily injections; infusion of insulin; children & young adults

common form; tissues have faulty receptors (insulin resistance); obesity

weight loss & medication