Midterm Questions Study Guide PSYC 104

Three Conditions of Natural Selection

Variation (individuals differ), heredity (traits are inherited), and differential reproduction (some traits increase reproductive success)

How Natural Selection Shapes the Brain

Natural selection builds brain circuits that take in information, compare it to goals, and produce behavior to solve adaptive problems

Charles Darwin

Scientist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, explaining how traits evolve through survival and reproduction

WWII Influence on Social Psychology

Led to study of prejudice, obedience, propaganda, and intergroup conflict to explain real-world social problems

Auguste Comte

Proposed hierarchy of sciences and unity of knowledge; higher sciences must align with lower ones

Hierarchy of Sciences

Order of knowledge from math → astronomy → physics → chemistry → biology → sociology

Consilience

Principle that knowledge across disciplines must align and not contradict

Testes Size and Mating Systems

Larger testes indicate more sperm competition (multi-male systems); smaller testes indicate monogamy

Monogamy

One male mates with one female

Polygyny

One male mates with multiple females

Multi-Male Multi-Female System

Multiple males and females mate with each other

Human Mating System

Weak polygyny (mostly monogamous with some variation)

Modern vs Ancestral Families

Modern families have fewer children and more birth control; ancestral families had many children and strong kin networks

Controlled Fertility Society

Use of birth control resulting in fewer children

Natural Fertility Society

No birth control resulting in many children

Menopause

End of reproductive ability in females

Grandmother Hypothesis

Menopause evolved so grandmothers can help raise grandchildren and increase survival

Human vs Primate Reproduction

Humans reproduce faster, have shorter interbirth intervals, and live long after reproduction ends

Interbirth Interval

Time between births (~3 years in humans)

Bands

Small, temporary groups of 20-50 people consisting of multiple families

Evolutionary Mismatch

Modern environments differ from ancestral ones, causing maladaptive behaviors

Example of Mismatch

Craving sugar leads to overeating and obesity in modern environments

IAATOPE

Intuition, Anecdote, Authority, Tradition, Observation, Prediction, Experimentation

Weak Ways of Knowing

Intuition, anecdote, authority, tradition

Strong Scientific Methods

Observation, prediction, experimentation

Correlation

A relationship between two variables

Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

Cannot determine cause due to reverse causation or third variables

Third Variable

A hidden variable influencing both variables in a correlation

Experiment

A study with random assignment, manipulation of an independent variable, and measurement of a dependent variable

Independent Variable

Variable that is manipulated

Dependent Variable

Variable that is measured

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to conditions by chance to ensure groups are equivalent

Lab Experiment

High control and low realism

Field Experiment

Real-world setting with less control

Natural Experiment

Assignment to conditions occurs naturally

Quasi-Experiment

Lacks random assignment and is weak for causal conclusions

Importance of Random Assignment

Makes groups equivalent, eliminates confounds, and allows causal conclusions

Tuskegee Study

Showed lack of informed consent and ethical violations in research

Milgram Experiment

Showed obedience to authority and raised concerns about psychological harm

Stanford Prison Experiment

Showed role-based behavior and ethical concerns about distress

Belmont Report

Ethical guidelines for research involving humans

Respect for Persons

Informed consent and protection of autonomy

Beneficence

Maximize benefits and minimize harm

Justice

Fair distribution of risks and benefits

Validity

The extent to which a claim is supported by evidence and reasoning

Independent Variable Validity

Whether the manipulation reflects what it intends to measure

Dependent Variable Validity

Whether the measurement accurately captures the concept

Relationship Validity

Whether the IV truly affects the DV

Replication

Repeating studies to test reliability

Direct Replication

Repeating a study as closely as possible

Conceptual Replication

Testing the same idea using different methods

Replication Crisis

Many psychological findings fail to replicate

P-Hacking

Manipulating data analysis to obtain significant results

Behavioral Genetics

Study of how genes and environment influence behavior

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins sharing 100% of genes

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins sharing about 50% of genes

Heritability (A)

Genetic contribution to variation

Shared Environment (C)

Environmental factors shared by siblings

Unshared Environment (E)

Unique experiences not shared by siblings

Four Laws of Behavioral Genetics

All traits are heritable; genes matter more than shared environment; unshared environment matters; many genes influence traits

Mirror Self-Recognition Test

Test of self-awareness using a mark on the body

Age of Passing MSRT

Typically between 1-2 years old

Function of Self-Awareness

Helps with social cognition and understanding others

Schema

Mental framework that organizes information

Self-Schema

Organized knowledge about oneself

Looking-Glass Self

Self-concept develops from how we think others perceive us

Self-Esteem

Evaluation of one's own worth

Sociometer Theory

Self-esteem is a gauge of social acceptance

Social Comparison Theory

People evaluate themselves by comparing to others

Upward Comparison

Comparing to better others, often lowers self-esteem

Downward Comparison

Comparing to worse others, often raises self-esteem

Self-Presentation

Managing how others perceive you

Self-Control

Regulating behavior when long-term goals conflict with short-term rewards

Self-Regulation

System of monitoring, evaluating, and adjusting behavior

Self-Monitoring

Observing your own behavior

Self-Evaluation

Comparing behavior to goals

Self-Reinforcement

Rewarding or correcting behavior

Immediate Reward

Short-term satisfaction

Delayed Reward

Long-term benefit

Pleasure Principle

Desire for immediate gratification

Reality Principle

Delaying gratification for long-term success

Marshmallow Test

Study showing ability to delay gratification predicts better outcomes

Delay Discounting

Future rewards are perceived as less valuable than immediate rewards

Indifference Point

Point where two reward options are valued equally

Evidence of Delay Discounting

Both humans and animals prefer immediate rewards over delayed ones

Outcomes of High Self-Control

Linked to better academics, health, relationships, and lower crime

Resource Model

Self-control is a limited resource that can be depleted

Process Model

Self-control failure occurs due to shifts in motivation and attention

Self-Control Strategies

Avoid temptation, change environment, build habits

Shortcut Strategies

Reduce need for effortful control by removing temptations or automating behavior