Unit 0: Foundations of Psychological Science Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards for Unit 0: Definitions & examples of key psychology terms.

Psychology

The systematic and scientific study of human and animal behavior and mental processes.

APA

American Psychological Association; the professional organization that sets ethical standards and publication styles.

Experimental Psychologist

A professional who uses research methods to study basic psychological processes like learning or sensation.

Industrial/Organizational Psychologists

Psychologists who apply psychological concepts to workplaces to improve productivity and employee morale.

Clinical Psychologist

A professional who assesses and treats people with mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.

Psychiatrist

A medical doctor licensed to prescribe medication and perform medical procedures for psychological disorders.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

An integrated approach that considers biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors for a holistic understanding.

Scientific Method

A systematic process for gathering data and testing ideas through observation and experiments.

Peer Reviewers

Experts in a field who anonymously evaluate research papers for quality and accuracy before publication.

Theory

An integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory, expressing a relationship between variables.

Falsifiable

The capacity for a theory or hypothesis to be proven wrong through observation or experimentation.

Operational Definition

A precise, measurable description of how a variable is quantified in a specific study.

Replication

Repeating a research study, usually with different participants, to see if findings persist.

Case Study

A descriptive research technique in which one individual or small group is studied in great depth.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate the environment.

Survey

A technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors via questioning a representative sample.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Self-Report Bias

A type of measurement error where participants provide inaccurate information about their own behavior.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample of a population.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Population

All those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and how well either predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.

Variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure in a study.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables even when no such relationship exists.

Regression Toward Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward their average.

Experiment

A research method where an investigator manipulates factors to observe effects on behavior.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the version of the independent variable being tested.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where participants don't know if they have received the treatment or placebo.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where both participants and staff are unaware of group assignments.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; effect caused by an inert substance.

Independent Variable (IV)

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Experimenter Bias

The unconscious tendency for researchers to treat groups differently to confirm their hypothesis.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome factor; the variable that is measured in response to manipulations.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Quantitative Research

Systematic empirical investigation via statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.

Qualitative Research

Research that relies on non-numerical data like words and descriptions to understand experiences.

Informed Consent

Ethical principle that participants be told enough to choose if they wish to participate.

Debriefing

Post-experimental explanation of a study, including any deceptions, to its participants.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; includes central tendency.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution where bar height indicates frequency.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above and half are below.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that a specific score falls above.

Skewed Distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value due to outliers.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data.

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize from sample data to the probability of something being true of a population.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure for combining and analyzing results from many different individual research studies.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Effect Size

A statistical measure of the relative strength or magnitude of the relationship between variables.

Methods & Correlation

Research techniques like correlations and observations where the researcher does not manipulate variables.

Wording Effects

How the specific phrasing of questions can influence the responses in a survey.

Directionality Problem

The uncertainty in a correlation of which variable is causing changes in the other.

Third Variable Problem

An extraneous factor that causes the observed relationship between two other variables.

X & Y Axis

The horizontal (Independent Variable) and vertical (Dependent Variable) lines on a graph.

Corr. != Causation

The principle that a link between factors does not prove that one causes the other.

Research Confederates

People who appear to be participants but are actually actors working for the researcher.

Bimodal Distribution

A data set that contains two clear peaks or 'modes'.

Convenience Sample

Using a group of participants who are easily accessible rather than a random selection.

Structured Interview

An interview that follows a fixed, standardized set of questions in a specific order.

Informed Assent

Agreement from a minor or someone unable to give legal consent to participate in research.

Minimize Harm

The ethical requirement to reduce any physical or psychological risk to participants.

Nonmaleficence

The fundamental ethical principle of 'doing no harm' to research subjects.

Confidentiality

Ensuring that individual participant data is kept private and anonymous.

Deception

Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study; must be followed by a debrief.

Likert Scale

A survey rating scale that measures attitudes by asking people to rate agreement.

(IRB) Review Board

An administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects.

Tuskegee Study

A famous unethical study where treatment for syphilis was withheld from African American men.

Central Tendency

Measures that represent the 'typical' value in a data set (mean, median, mode).

Measures of Variation

Measures that describe how spread out the scores are (range, standard deviation).

Positive/Negative Skew

When extreme outliers pull the tail of a distribution to the high (positive) or low (negative) end.

P-Value

The specific number used to determine if the results of a study are statistically significant.

Representative Sample

A subset of a population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the whole group.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to the larger population.

Normal Curve %

The specific percentages of data that fall within each standard deviation (68-95-99.7).