AP Psych

Nature

The genetic or hereditary factors that influence who we are such as our physical appearance and personality traits.

Nurture

The environmental factors that impact human development, including experiences, education, and culture.

Eugenics

A movement aimed at improving the genetic composition of the human population through selective breeding.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression and potentially be inherited.

Nervous system

The network of cells that coordinates the body's actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of the body.

Central nervous system

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

The part of the nervous system outside the central nervous system, consisting of sensory and motor neurons.

Somatic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for voluntary movements by innervating skeletal muscles.

Autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations.

Parasympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system that relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many high energy functions.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons found in the central nervous system that connect sensory and motor neurons.

Reflex arc

A neural pathway that controls a reflex action.

Glial cells

Supportive cells in the nervous system that assist neurons.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures on neurons that receive signals from other neurons.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus.

Axon

The long, thin structure of a neuron that transmits signals away from the cell body.

Axon terminals

Endpoints of an axon where neurotransmitters are released.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons or between a neuron and another cell.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty substance that insulates axons and increases the speed of neural impulses.

Multiple sclerosis

A disease affecting the central nervous system characterized by the degeneration of the myelin sheath.

Myasthenia gravis

An autoimmune disorder that leads to weakness in the skeletal muscles.

Jet lag

A temporary sleep disorder that occurs when a person travels across multiple time zones.

Shift work sleep disorder

A condition that arises from working non-traditional hours resulting in disrupted sleep patterns.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder that causes excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden onset of sleep.

Sleep apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing or shallow breathing during sleep.

Somnambulism

Also known as sleepwalking, a behavior disorder that originates during deep sleep.

REM sleep behavior disorder

A condition in which individuals act out their dreams during REM sleep.

Depolarization

A change in a cell's membrane potential that makes it more positive.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

All-or-nothing principle

The principle stating that once an action potential is initiated, it will either fully occur or not at all.

Action potential

A neural impulse that travels down an axon.

Refractory period

The time following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire.

Resting potential

The state of a neuron when it is not firing an impulse.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of the excitation of the neuron.

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of the excitation of the neuron.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction and memory.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter important for arousal and alertness.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with reward and pleasure mechanisms in the brain.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.

Substance P

A neuropeptide involved in the transmission of pain.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers.

Glutamate

Controls learning and memory

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.It reduces neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system and plays a crucial role in regulating anxiety, sleep, and muscle relaxation.

Endocrine system

The collection of glands that produce hormones to regulate metabolism, growth, and development.

Hormones

Chemicals produced by glands in the endocrine system that regulate bodily functions.

Adrenaline

A hormone released in response to stress that increases heart rate and energy availability.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Ghrelin

A hormone that stimulates appetite.

Leptin

A hormone that regulates energy balance and inhibits hunger.

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in childbirth and breastfeeding, also linked to bonding and social behaviors.

Circadian rhythm

The natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and other biological processes.

NREM Sleep

Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep, composed of three stages and characterized by absence of REM.

REM sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep, a stage of sleep characterized by dreams and high brain activity.

Paradoxical sleep

Another term for REM sleep due to the contradiction of active brain waves and body paralysis.

Hypnagogic sensations

Sensations that occur as a person is falling asleep, often accompanied by vivid visual imagery.

REM rebound

An increase in REM sleep after a period of sleep deprivation.

Consolidation theory of dreams

The theory suggesting that dreams play a role in consolidating memories.

Activation-synthesis theory

A theory proposing that dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances that alter consciousness, perception, and behavior.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and speed up body functions.

Depressants

Substances that reduce neural activity and slow down body functions.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that cause distortions in perception, thought, and mood.

Opioids

A class of drugs derived from the opium poppy that are used to reduce pain.

Tolerance

A state in which a person becomes less responsive to a drug over time.

Addiction

A compulsive disorder characterized by the inability to stop using a substance.

Withdrawal

Symptoms that occur upon the abrupt discontinuation of a drug.

Agonists

Substances that mimic the action of neurotransmitters.

Antagonists

Substances that block the action of neurotransmitters.

Reuptake inhibitors

Drugs that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their availability.

Brain stem

The oldest part of the brain that controls automatic survival functions.

Limbic system

A complex system of nerves and networks involved in instinct and mood.

Cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in complex brain functions.

Medulla oblongata

The part of the brainstem that controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

A part of the brainstem that links the medulla and the thalamus.

Reticular activating system

A network of neurons that plays a crucial role in controlling arousal and consciousness.

Cerebellum

The part of the brain responsible for coordinating voluntary movement and balance.

Thalamus

The brain's relay station for sensory and motor signals.

Hippocampus

A region of the brain associated with memory and navigation.

Amygdala

An almond-shaped set of neurons that is involved in emotions, particularly fear and pleasure.

Hypothalamus

A region of the brain that controls various bodily functions including temperature regulation and hunger.

Pituitary gland

A gland in the brain that controls other endocrine glands and regulates growth and metabolism.

Frontal lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex associated with reasoning, planning, and problem-solving.

Parietal lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex involved in processing sensory information.

Occipital lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex responsible for visual processing.

Temporal lobes

Regions of the cerebral cortex associated with processing auditory information and memory.

Prefrontal cortex

The front part of the frontal lobes that is involved in complex behaviors such as decision-making.

Motor cortex

The part of the cerebral cortex that controls voluntary movement.

Sensory cortex

The part of the cerebral cortex that processes tactile information.

Broca’s Area

A region in the frontal lobe associated with speech production.

Wernicke’s area

A region in the temporal lobe associated with understanding spoken and written language.

Corpus callosum

A large bundle of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change throughout life by forming new connections.

Lesioning

The process of damaging a part of the brain to study its function.

EEG

An electroencephalogram used to record electrical activity of the brain.