Stage 2 Check

Vr

Rotation speed. The speed at which an aircraft takes off. - 55 knots

Vx

Best angle of climb speed - Gains the most height over the shortest horizontal distance. 63 knots

Vy

Best rate of climb speed - Gains the most altitude in the shortest amount of time. 79 knots

Va

Maneuvering speed - The max speed at which full or abrupt control inputs can be made without risking structural damage. Varies with weight. 88 knots - 111 knots

Vfe

Maximum flap extended speed - The highest speed at which flaps can be extended. 103 knots

Vglide

Glide speed - The speed at which an aircraft achieves its greatest glide performance. 73 knots

Vref

Landing speed — 63 knots

Vne

Never Exceed Speed - The max speed an aircraft is allowed to fly. 160 knots

Vs0

Stall speed in the landing configuration - Gear out and flaps out. Stall OUT. 44 knots

Vs1

Stall speed in the clean configuration. Stall IN. 50 knots

Vcruise climb

Climb speed after 1,000ft. Used for better visibility and engine cooling. 87 knots

Vno

Maximum Structural Cruising Speed - The max speed an aircraft can fly in smooth air without risking structural damage. - 126 knots

Solo Cross Country Weather Minimums - Vis/Ceiling and Tailwind

• 7 SM Visibility

• 2,500ft Ceiling

• Can’t take off or land with any tailwind.

Student Pilot Cross-Country Flight Planning

• You must receive an official weather briefing(1800wxbrief, FSS, or ForeFlight)

• You must file and open a flight plan.

• You must complete all landings to a full stop/full-stop taxi back when soloing.

• You must return to KMLB no later than 30 minutes before official sunset.

Fuel Requirements

• 1 hour of fuel reserve at all times.

• PA-28-161’s can’t take off unless at least one tank is filled to the tabs. (17 gallons.)

• Cross-country flights MUST carry the max fuel allowed by weight and balance.

• Flights more than 3.5 hours hobbs REQUIRE a fuel stop.

Carburetor Icing - Rough Engine In High Humidity & Low Temp Environment

• High humidity = visible water vapor is prone to freezing in the carburetor.

• Low temp allows the water vapor to freeze into ice.

• This ice causes the engine to run rough.

• To fix this, turn on the carb heat.

• Notice an expected drop in RPM due to hot air. The engine will then slowly rise, and the power will return.

Low Fuel Situation

Things that can cause low fuel are:

• Leaking, poor preparation, mixture too rich, deviating from POH, headwinds, etc.

Solutions to low fuel situations:

• Divert to the nearest airport.

• Lean for the best economy.

• Declare an emergency.

Federal Aviation Regulations — Pilot In Command Responsibilities

As PIC, you are responsible for:

• Airworthiness

• Safety of the flight

• Final authority

Preflight Action - NWKRAFT - 91.103

NOTAM's

Weather

Known ATC Delays

Runway lengths

Alternate airports

Fuel requirements

Takeoff/landing data

Minimum Safe Altitudes - 91.119

• Congested - 1,000ft above, 2,000ft horizontally

• Other than congested - 500ft above

• Sparsely populated and open water - cannot operate within 500ft of the nearest vessel, structure, person, or vehicle.

FAA Fuel Reserves - 91.151

FAA:

• Day - 30 minutes

• Night - 45 minutes

FIT:

• Always 1 hour

VFR Cruising Altitudes - 91.159

• The purpose of this regulation is to separate converging courses.

• Based on magnetic course starting above 3,000ft

• 0-179 = odd 1000s + 500 (EAST IS LEAST)

• 180 - 359 = even 1000s + 500 (WEST IS BEST)

Required Pre-Solo Endorsements - 61.87

• Pre-solo aeronautical knowledge test

• Pre-solo flight training

• Solo flight (initial 90 days)

Required Solo Cross-Country Endorsements - 61.93

• Cross-country flight training

• Solo cross-country flight (specific route)

What are the required equipment and documents needed to fly a cross country?

Required equipment is ATOMATOFLAMES

Airspeed indicator, tachometer, oil pressure gauge, manifold pressure gauge, altimeter, oil temperature gauge, fuel quantity gauge, landing gear position indicator, anti-collision lights, magnetic compass, ELT, seatbelts

Required documents:

• Student pilot certificate

• Medical certificate

• Government-issued ID

ARROWES:

Airworthiness certificate - does not expire as long as plane is airworthy
Registration certificate - D7ANFROST
Radio station/operator license - operator license is valid for life with the pilot and station license is valid for 10 years for the plane. Both needed to fly international and issued by FCC.
Operational limits - POH section 2
Weight and balance - POH section 6

Equipment list - Kinds of Equipment List
Supplements - FLICES

When is registration no longer valid? D7ANFROST

Death of owner

7 years

Address change

Name change

Foreign registered

Revoked

Owner loses citizenship

Scrapped

Transfer of ownership

What are the supplements in ARROWES? FLICES

Form 337 - Form that requests major alterations or repairs

Life limited parts - parts that have a mandatory replacement limit

Inoperative equipment - TARKY

Compass deviation card

External data plate

Supplemental type certificate - adds to current type certificate

What are the required inspections for cross-country flight for the airplane?

Required inspections are AV1ATES:

Annual inspection every 12 calendar months

VOR every 30 days

100 hour tach time

Altimeter every 24 calendar months

Transponder every 24 calendar months

ELT every 12 calendar months. Goes with the annual.

Static system every 24 calendar months

What would you do if you got to the airplane and realized something was missing or inoperative? - TARKY

TCDS
AD’s
Regulations - ATOMATOFLAMES - 91.205
KOEL - Kinds of Equip List - we need everything on it to fly
You feel comfortable to fly the plane?

To be airworthy a plane must:

• Have all required ADs

• Have all documents onboard

• Meet the type design

• Is safe to fly

• Haves all placards on - Gas, baggage markings)

Night time flying equipment- FLAPS

Fuses or circuit breakers

Landing light

Anti collision lights

Position lights

Source of power - battery or alternator

Why would you choose a specific cruising altitude and why is it a safe altitude?

• VFR cruising altitudes + 500

• Wind considerations

• Loss of engine considerations

Does True Air Speed increase with wind?

No. True airspeed is the actual speed of an aircraft moving through an airmass relative to the air, not the ground. Ground Speed is affected by wind.

Effects of density altitude on True Air Speed:

As density altitude increases, the air becomes less dense, and TAS must be increased to compensate for the lack of air molecules to produce the same lift.

Higher density altitude = Higher TAS

Lower density altitude = Lower TAS

Mixture settings: Dont worry too much about this

55% = Best fuel economy

65% = better fuel burn

75% = best power, gets you there quickest

To perform best lean procedure:

• Set cruise power

• Slowly lean the mixture while waiting for engine roughness.

• Increase the mixture again until the engine runs smooth.

To perform best power procedure:

• Set high power

• Set high mixture

What is the difference between range and endurance?

• Range is the max distance an aircraft can fly on a given amount of fuel. Uses nautical miles to determine distance.

• Endurance is the max time an aircraft can remain airborne on a given amount of fuel. Uses hours and minutes.

Types of NOTAMs

D - NOTAMs: Domestic NOTAMs. Provides information about all airport and local facility issues. Ex: RWY 18 CLOSED or ILS RWY 9 OUT OF SERVICE

FDC NOTAMs: Flight Data Center NOTAMS. Provides information about changes to airspace, TFRs, or instrument procedures. EX: TFR for President

International NOTAMs: NOTAMs issued outside the U.S. FAA system. Provides information about temporary changes or hazards affecting international navigation. EX: Volcanic ash, Canadian airport closure, etc.

Military NOTAMs: NOTAMs issued by or related to military operations and airspace use. EX: MOA active 1200-1800

What is pilotage and dead reckoning?

• Pilotage is the navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints.

• Dead reckoning is navigation solely by calculations on speed, time, distance, and direction,

What does SG/LB1 mean on a flight plan in the equipment section?

S: VOR, VHF, ILS

G: GPS
L: Mode S Transponder(Identifier, position, altitude, data exchange)

B1: ADS-B OUT

Airspace recognition

Class B - Solid blue

Class C - Solid magenta

Class D - Dashed blue

Class E - At the surface is dashed magenta, at 700ft is magenta vignette, anywhere no other airspace is 1,200ft

Class A Airspace

• From 18,000ft to 60,000ft

• Extends 12M offshore of the states and Alaska

Entry Requirements:

• ATC Clearance

• IFR flight plan

Required Equipment:

• Two-way radios

• Mode C transponder(Gives ID code an altitude)

• ADS B-OUT

Weather Minimums:

• None, IFR

Class B Airspace

• Surface to 10,000ft

• Surrounds the busiest airports.

• Multiple layers like an upside-down cake.

• Some airports don’t allow student pilots to land due to high traffic.

Entry Requirements:

• ATC Clearance - “cleared into the bravo.”

Required Equipment:

• Two-way radios

• Mode C Transponder

• ADS B-OUT

Weather Minimums:

• 3COC - 3 SM visibility and clear of clouds

Class C Airspace

• Surface to 4,000ft

• Surrounds airports with a control tower, radar approach control, and limited IFR operations.

• Configuration can be different depending on airport

• Inner ring - surface to 4,000ft with a 5NM radius

• Outer ring - 1,200ft to 4,000ft with a 10 NM radius

Entry Requirements:

• Establish two-way radio communication

Required Equipment:

• Two-way radio

• Mode C Transponder

• ADS B-OUT

Weather Minimums:

• 3152 : 3SM visibility, 100ft above clouds, 500 ft below, 2,000ft horizontally

Class D Airspace

• Surface to 2.500ft

• Surrounds airports that have a control tower

• Configuration can be different depending on the airport - KMLB

• Designed to contain instrument approaches

Entry Requirements:

• Establish two way radio communication

Required Equipment:

• Two way radios

Weather Minimums:

• 3152 : 3SM visibility, 100ft above clouds, 500 ft below, 2,000ft horizontally

Class E Airspace

• Controlled airspace that is not A, B, C, or D.

• Extends from either surface or designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent airspace.

• Can start at either the surface, 700ft, or 1,200ft

• All airspace above 60,000ft is Class E

Entry Requirements:

• Mode C Transponder with ADS-B OUT above 10,000ft

Weather Requirements:

• Less than 10,000ft: 3152: 3SM visibility, 100ft above clouds, 500 ft below, 2,000ft horizontally

• More than 10,000ft: 5111": 5SM visibility, 1000ft above clouds. 1000ft below clouds, and 1SM horizontally

Class G Airspace

• Uncontrolled

• ATC has no authority or responsibility.

• Pilots can’t act carelessly or recklessly. - 91.13

• VFR rules apply.

Entry Requirements:

• None

Weather Requirements:

• Weather pyramid

• Below 1,200ft: Day - 1COC, Night - 3152

• Between 1,200ft and 10,000ft: Day - 1152, Night - 3152

• Above 10,000ft: 5111

What are the different types of special-use airspace? WARMPC

Warning

Alert

Restricted

Military

Prohibited

Controlled Firing Areas

Warning Area

• Charted as “W” followed by a number.

• Contains activity that may be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft

• Ex: Military exercises, live-fire operations.

• Can fly through, but exercise caution

Alert Area

• High volume of pilot training or an unusual type of aerial activity.

• Charted with an “A” followed by a number

• Can fly through, just exercise caution.

Restricted Area

• Area in which operations are hazardous to non-participating aircraft

• Ex: artillery firing, guided missiles

• You must have permission from ATC or controlling center to enter. Check if hot or cold.

• Charted with an “R” followed by a number

Military Operating Area

• Separates military training activities from IFR traffic.

• Defined vertical and lateral limits

• Can fly through, just exercise caution.

• Ex: high-speed military jets

Prohibited Area

• YOU CAN NOT FLY THROUGH THIS AIRSPACE.

• Charted with a “P” followed by a number

• Placed for security or national welfare, like at Camp David or the White House

Controlled Firing Area

• Contains activity that is hazardous to non-participating aircraft.

• Activity stops when a spotter notices non-participating aircraft.

• In the Chart Supplement. NOT on sectional

Military Training Routes(MTRs)

• Special area where jets can exceed 250 knots below 10,000ft.

• Routes shown with IR if IFR and VR if VFR and a number.

• Not exceeding 1,500ft contain four numbers

• Exceeding 1,500ft contain 3 numbers.

Special Flight Rules Area - SFRA

• Additional rules and regulations apply by FAA.

• Additional training might be required

Parachute Jump Areas

• Airports that have high numbers of parachute operations

• Found in the Chart Supplement.

• Looks like an orange circle on the sectional.

Published VFR Routes

• Used for transitioning around, under, or through complex airspace.

• Referred to as VFR Corridor

Terminal Radar Service Area - TRSAs

• High traffic area

• Areas in which pilots can receive additional radar services. The purpose is to provide separation for IFR and participating VFR traffic.

• Has shelves

• Looks like Bravo, but it’s gray.

• Participation is voluntary and encouraged

Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs)

• Used for important individuals, humanitarian relief, space operations, security, and aerial congestion.

• Can’t go in. NOTAMs is where they’re found.

Weather Briefing Types

Outlook - Planned for a departure that is 6 or more hours away.

Standard - Planned for a departure within 6 hours of flight. Provides all aspects like NOTAMs, winds aloft, SIGMETS, METARs, etc.

Abbreviated - Shortened version of a standard briefing. Used when a departure is delayed or when updated weather is needed.

In-flight - A weather briefing that is obtained while you are already airborne.

What constitutes an official weather briefing?

Official brief: credentials and tail number (1800wxbrief, FSS, ForeFlight)

Non-official brief: aviationweather.gov, weather apps

METARs

• Issued every hour

• Valid for one hour or until the next METAR is released.

TAFs

• Weather forecast for an airport within 5SM.

• Issued every 6 hours

• Valid for 24 hours or 30 hours.

GFA - Graphic Forecasts for Aviation

• Provides weather forecasts that can impact flight operations.

• Ex: Cloud cover, visibility, precipitation, icing, winds

Wind and Temperature Aloft Chart

• Issued 4 times a day.

• Valid time is shown on the chart

• Includes winds and temps at specific locations

• Wind is in true knots, and temperature is in Celsius.

'

How does it code the winds if they are forecasted to be 100-199 knots?

• Add 50 to the wind direction and subtract 100 from the speed.

• Ex: 790058 - 79-50 = 290 degrees. 00+100 = 100 knots. 58 = -58C

How does it code the winds if they are forecasted to be calm or less than 5 knots?

• 9900

How does it code the winds if they are forecasted to be 200 knots or greater?

• 7799: 270 degrees and greater than 199 knots

Why do some stations not report winds or temperature?

• No winds are forecasted within 1,500ft of the station elevation.

• No temperatures are forecasted within 2,500ft of the station elevation.

Radar Imagery

What are the different types of radar?

• National radar and single-site radar

National Radar:

• Shows the intensity of the precipitation.

• Provides a single view of the entire country

• Updates every 10 minutes

• Loops the latest 2 hours of images

Single-Site Radar:

• Composed of 140 radar sites across the U.S.

• Each site shows reflectivity and total precipitation

• Updates every 10 minutes

• Loops the latest 2 hours of images

Significant Weather Prognostic Chart

Low Level Significant Weather - surface to 24,000ft

High Level - 25,000ft to 60,000ft

2 Forms:

12 and 24 Hour Forecast Chart:

• Issued 4 times a day

• Valid time on chart

• Shows forecasted weather including non convective turbulence, freezing levels, and IFR or MVFR weather

36 and 48 Hour Surface Forecast Chart

• Extension of 12 and 24 hour forecast chart.

• Surface weather forecasts

• Issued 2 times a day

• Pressure patterns, fronts, and precipitation

IFR, MVFR, and VFR

VFR: >3,000ft ceiling and more than 5SM visibility

MVFR: 1000ft-3000ft ceiling and 3-5SM visibility

IFR: <1000 ft ceiling and less than 3SM visibility

Surface Analysis Chart

• Shows highs, lows, ridges, troughs, fronts, wind direction and speed, pressure systems, temperature, and dew point.

• They are an analysis of current weather across the USA.

• Issued every 3 hours.

• Valid time shown on chart

What is a high pressure system?

• A system where air flows outward, downward, and clockwise

• Dry, stable, descending air

• Brings good weather

What is a low pressure system?

• A system where air flows inward, upward, and counterclockwise.

• Brings bad weather

• Air rises to then cool and become nasty weather.

Ingredients for Thunderstorm (3)

• Moisture

• Lifting action

• Unstable air

Coriolis Force

In the northern hemisphere, air flows from high to low pressure and is deflected to the right.

What is a cold front?

• A system where cold high pressure air rams low pressure upwards.

• Moves really fast up to 60 mph.

• Rapidly ascending air can cause clouds to form.

• Expect towering cumulus, cumulonimbus, and showery precipitation prior to the front.

• After the front passes, clouds dissipate to cumulus clouds, and precipitation decreases.

• Good visibility with strong winds

• Flight toward a cold front = vertical development of clouds

What is a warm front?

• Occurs when warm air moves in and replaces colder air.

• The warmer air slides up and over the cold air, rising and cooling.

• This cooling forms widespread clouds and precipitation.

• Stratiform clouds and fog can be expected.

• Light to moderate steady precipitation.

• Slow at 10-25MPH.

Flight toward a warm front:

• Visibility decreases

• Pressure decreases

• The weather overall deteriorates

• VFR impossible

What is a stationary front?

• When the forces of two air masses are equal, and therefore neither can push the other out of the way.

• Terrible weather can remain in one area for days

What is an occluded front?

• A cold front catches up to a warm front and forces the warm air to rise completely above the ground.

• Warm air gets sandwiched between colder air and cold air.

• Warm front weather prevails but it followed by cold front weather like steady precipitation, low ceilings, thunderstorms, etc.

What is frontogenesis and frontolysis?

Frontogenesis: The formation of a front

Frontolysis: The dissipation of a front.

PIREPs

• A PIREP is a pilot weather report from a flight deck.

• Consists of message type, location, time, altitude, aircraft type, and a weather phenomenon.

2 Types: Routine(UA) and Urgent(UUA):

• Urgent includes: Tornadoes, severe or extreme turbulence, hail, or low-level wind shear within 2000ft.

• Routine contains normal conditions.

When must you submit a PIREP?

• When requested by another pilot.

• When ceiling is 5,000ft or less

• When visibility is 5SM or less

• Thunderstorms

• Moderate or greater turbulence

• Light or greater icing

• Wind shear

• Volcanic ash

AIRMETs

What is an AIRMET?

• An AIRMET is light to moderate weather that may be hazardous to aircraft.

• Issued every 6 hours.

• Valid for 6 hours.

Types:

Sierra:

• “S” for see.

• IFR conditions (ceilings less than 1,000ft and visibility less than 3SM)

• Mountain obscurations

Tango:

• “T’ for turbulence.

• Light to moderate turbulence

• Surface winds greater than 30kts

• Low-level wind shear

Zulu:

• Moderate Icing

• Freezing levels

• An airmet will be issued if any of these conditions are expected to cover at least 3,000 square miles.

SIGMETs (WS)

• A SIGMET is severe weather conditions that may be hazardous to aircraft.

• Issued as needed

• Valid for 4 hours and 6 for hurricanes

• Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms

• Severe or extreme turbulence including Clear Air Turbulence not associated with thunderstorms.

• Dust/sandstorms

• Volcanic ash

Convective SIGMET (WST)

• Hazardous convective weather affecting every flight.

• Issued like a METAR. Every 55 minutes.

• Valid for 2 hours.

Criteria: EATSHIT - The I is Silent

Embedded thunderstorms
A line of thunderstorms at least 60 miles long in which 40% is thunderstorms
Thunderstorms affecting 40% or more of a 3000 sq mile area.
Surface wings greater than 50 knots
Hail greater than ¾ inch in diameter
I
Tornadoes

Center Weather Advisory

• A weather warning for conditions approaching the criteria for AIRMET, SIGMET, or Convective SIGMET, but are not met yet.

• Issued by center

• Valid for up to two hours.

Convective Outlook

• Covers risk of convective activity through Day 1 - Day 8

Day 1: Risk of severe weather for 24 hours. Issued 5 times a day.

Day 2: Risk of severe weather for next 24 hours. Issued 2 times a day.

Day 3: Risk of severe weather for next 24 hours. Issued daily.

Day 4-8: Risk of severe weather for day 4 through day 8. Issued daily.

AWOS - Automated Weather Observation System

• AUTO weather every minute

• Controlled by the FAA
  Found at non-towered airports

• Read to pilots

• ATIS but automated

ASOS - Automated Surface Observing System

• Controlled by National Weather Service

• Contains what ATC uses for report

• Includes wind speed and direction, visibility, sky condition, ceiling, precipitation, pressure, and density altitude

ATIS - Automated Terminal Information Service

• Released every 55 minutes like METAR.

• At towered airports.

• Requires a human to monitor the ATIS.

• Contains more information than just weather like NOTAMS, remarks, etc.

Includes:

• Phonetic alphabet letter

• Time of report

• Wind speed and direction

• Visibility

• Cloud cover

• Temp

• Dew point

• Pressure

• NOTAMS, remarks, etc.

Lost Procedures - 7 C’s

Calm

Climb to identify landmarks

Circle to avoid getting more lost

Crosscheck your VOR and GPS

Communicate - request ATC assistance and confess you are lost

Comply with ATC instructions

Conserve your fuel. Reduce power to 55% and lean mixture

ICEFLAGGS

Inversion - Abrupt change from climb to level can feel like tumbling backward.

Coriolis - Rapid head movements in a turn will make you feel movement on a completely different axis.

Elevator - Updrafts and downdrafts can make you feel like you’re climbing or descending.

False Horizons - A layer of clouds, fog, or highway lights can create a false horizon that isn't the actual horizon.

Leans - Abrupt correction of bank attitude after a prolonged turn creates the illusion of banking in the opposite direction.

Autokinesis - Nighttime. A static light can appear to move when stared at.

Graveyard spiral - Pilot in prolonged coordinated turn will feel like straight and level. Due to the bank, the plane will start to descend. As a result, you naturally pull back which increases the spiral leading to the spin.

Graveyard spin - Accelerated stall due to graveyard spiral.

Somotogravic - Rapid acceleration or deceleration feels like a climb or descent.

Rods and Cones

Rods - Used for nighttime vision. Night scanning.

Cones - Used for daytime vision

Supplemental Oxygen

Between 12,500ft and 14,000ft:

• Flight crew must use oxygen if flight is greater than 30 minutes.

Between 14,000ft and 15,000ft:

• Flight crew must use oxygen at all times.

Above 15,000ft:

• Occupants provided oxygen.

What is a Victor(V) airway and an RNAV(T) airway?

• A Victor airway is a route that connects two VORs.

• A T or RNAV airway is a route that can be flown using GPS and waypoints.