Exam 4 Study Guide: Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, Reproductive, and Endocrine Systems

Flashcards covering the anatomical structures, histological features, and physiological functions of the Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, Endocrine, and Reproductive systems based on the provided lecture notes.

What are the primary and secondary functions of the respiratory system?

The primary function is gas exchange (supplying $O_2$ and removing $CO_2$). Secondary functions include warming and humidifying air, removing microbes/dust, sampling air for smell, producing sounds, and adjusting respiration rate in response to blood pH changes.

Differentiate between the conducting zone and the respiratory zone of the respiratory system.

The conducting zone consists of tubes for air movement (oral cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, terminal bronchioles), while the respiratory zone is where gas exchange occurs (respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli).

In order, through which structures does air pass between the external nares and an alveolus?

External nares → nasal cavity → pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx) → larynx → trachea → primary bronchi → secondary bronchi → tertiary bronchi → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles → respiratory bronchioles → alveolar ducts → alveolar sacs → alveoli.

What type of epithelium and cartilage are found in the trachea?

The trachea is lined with pseudostratified columnar ET with cilia and goblet cells and contains C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage.

What is the function of the nasal conchae?

They slow and swirl air so it can be warmed, humidified, and filtered.

Name the three parts of the pharynx and the epithelium found in each.

The nasopharynx (pseudostratified columnar ET), the oropharynx (stratified squamous ET), and the laryngopharynx (stratified squamous ET).

What is the function of the epiglottis?

A leaf-shaped elastic cartilage that tips inferiorly to cover the glottis during swallowing to keep everything but air out of the larynx.

Which respiratory structure is the last part of the conducting zone?

The terminal bronchioles, which have walls made of simple columnar ET.

Describe the functions of Type I and Type II alveolar cells.

Type I alveolar cells are simple squamous epithelium that allow for rapid gas diffusion. Type II alveolar cells produce surfactant to prevent the moist surfaces of the alveolus from sticking together.

What are the five processes of the digestive system?

Ingestion, digestion (mechanical and chemical), absorption, movement (peristalsis), and defecation.

List the four major layers of the GI tract wall from inside to outside.

1. Mucosa (Epithelium, Lamina Propria, Muscularis mucosa), 2. Submucosa, 3. Muscularis (inner circular, outer longitudinal), and 4. Serosa (or adventitia).

What specifically increases surface area in the small intestine for absorption?

The small intestine increases surface area via its great length ($20$ feet), plicae (large ridges), villi (microscopic protrusions), and microvilli (extensions of the plasma membrane).

What are the functions of Parietal cells and Chief cells in the gastric glands?

Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria, and Chief cells produce digestive enzymes.

Trace the flow of bile from the liver to the duodenum.

Hepatocytes → bile canaliculi → branch of bile duct (portal triad) → Right/Left hepatic ducts → common hepatic duct → (optionally to cystic duct and gall bladder) → common bile duct → duodenum.

What structures comprise a portal triad in a liver lobule?

A branch of the hepatic portal vein (nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor blood), a branch of the hepatic artery (oxygen-rich, nutrient-poor blood), and a branch of the bile duct.

What are the functions of the urinary system?

Blood filtration to remove wastes/toxins, regulation of blood pressure, regulation of blood pH/salt/water content, and stimulation of RBC production.

List the structures of a nephron in the order of filtrate flow.

Bowman’s capsule → proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) → loop of Henle → distal convoluted tubule (DCT).

What two layers form the urinary filtration membrane?

The fenestrated glomerular endothelium (capillary) and the podocytes (visceral layer of Bowman’s capsule).

Trace the route of blood through the kidney around the nephron.

Renal artery → arteries → afferent arteriole → glomerulus → efferent arteriole → peritubular capillaries or vasa recta → venule → veins → renal vein.

What defines the "master gland" and what structure controls it?

The pituitary gland is the master gland because its hormones have wide-ranging effects, but it is controlled by the hypothalamus.

Contrast the effects of Calcitonin and Parathyroid hormone (PTH).

Calcitonin (thyroid) is released during high blood calcium to stimulate osteoblasts and inhibit osteoclasts. PTH (parathyroid) is released during low blood calcium to stimulate osteoclasts and inhibit osteoblasts.

Identify the male and female homologous structures for the gonads and the external genitalia.

Gonads: Testes (male) and Ovaries (female). External Genitalia: Penis (male) and Clitoris (female).

Trace the passage of sperm from its origin in the male to the point of fertilization.

Seminiferous tubules → straight tubule → rete testes → efferent duct → epididymis → vas deferens → ejaculatory duct → urethra → vagina → cervical canal → uterus → Fallopian tube.

List the six phases of ovarian follicles in the order of development.

1. Primordial follicle, 2. Primary follicle, 3. Secondary follicle, 4. Mature (Graafian) follicle, 5. Corpus luteum (post-ovulation), 6. Corpus albicans (scar tissue).

What are the three stages of the uterine (menstrual) cycle?

1. Menstrual stage (days 0-3), 2. Proliferative phase (days 4-13), 3. Secretory phase (days 15-28).