PSY1011 - DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Development

the process in which someone or something grows, or changes and becomes more advanced with time

Human development

refers to the brain, body, and behavioural changes in humans across the lifespan

Cognitive maturation

developing more sophisticated ways of thinking with age, where cognition refers to the inner processes and products of the mind that leads to 'knowing', including attending, reasoning, symbolising, categorising, planning, etc.

Nature vs. nurture debate

Focuses on whether genetics (nature) are more powerful contributors to a person's development or whether life experiences or the person's environment (nurture) are more influential on human development

Twin studies

identical twins share the same genetic information, therefore, if they are raised in different homes it is possible for researchers to focus on the differences in environments, while 'controlling for' the effect of genetics

Developmental psychology

the psychological specialty that documents the course of social, emotional, moral, and intellectual development over the life span

Prenatal

conception to birth

Perinatal

20 completed weeks (140 days) of gestation and ends 28 completed days after birth

Infancy and toddlerhood

birth to 3 years

Preschool period

3-6 years

Middle childhood

6-12 years

Adolescence

12-20 years; characterised by rapid development in various domains - physical, cognitive, emotional and social

Early adulthood

20-40 years

Middle adulthood

40-65 years

Late adulthood

65+ years

Breast crawl

a newborn can smell its mother's breast milk and will follow the scent, pulling themselves up to be fed

Moro reflex

if a baby loses balance suddenly, or hears a loud noise they will startle and throw their legs and arms outwards

The brain at birth

babies are born with all of the neurons or brain cells that they will require during their life but the neural connections between their neurons are immature

Jean Piaget

proposed that children move through four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational; focused on the physical world of objects

Sensorimotor stage

0-2 years; the infant explores the world through direct sensory and motor contact. Object permanence and separation anxiety develop during this stage

Preoperational stage

2-6 years; the child uses symbols (words and images) to represent objects but does not reason logically. The child also has the ability to pretend. During this stage, the child is egocentric.

Concrete operational stage

7-12 years; the child can think logically about concrete objects and can thus add and subtract. The child also understands conservation.

Formal operational stage

12 years-adult; the adolescent can reason abstractly and think in hypothetical terms.

Equilibrium

the effort by the organism to exist in harmony with its environment

Schema

mental representations of categories, objects, events or people

Assimilation

fitting new experiences into existing schemes

Accommodation

modifying schemes as a result of new experiences

Objective permanence

knowing an object still exists even if not in view

Egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes

Animism

crediting inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties

Centration

The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects.

Conservation

ability to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of another property

theory of mind

ability to take someone else's perspective

Imprinting

whereby an animal bonds to something in a critical period after birth and takes on the behavioural characteristics of the caregiver

Stages of attachment

1. Pre-attachment stage (birth-6-8 weeks)

2. Attachment in the making (6-8 weeks to 6-8 months)

3. True attachment (6-8 months to 18 months)

4. Reciprocal relationships (18 months on)

Secure attachment

attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy

Insecure-avoidant attachment

a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return

Insecure-anxious attachment

constantly craving acceptance but remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection

Disorganised attachment

a type of attachment that is characterised by inconsistent or contradictory behaviour patterns in the presence of a primary caregiver

Stranger anxiety

distress over contact with unfamiliar people

Separation anxiety

distress seen in many infants when separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment

Authoritative parenting

parenting style - warm and responsive, clear rules, high expectation, supportive, value independence

associated outcome - higher academic performance, more self-esteem, better social skills, less mental illness, lower delinquency

Authoritarian parenting

parenting style - unresponsive, strict rules, high expectation, expect blind obedience

associated outcome - lower academic performance, less self-esteem, poorer social skills, mental illness, drug/alcohol abuse, delinquency

Permissive parenting

parenting style - warm and responsive, few or no rules, indulgent, lenient

associated outcome - impulsive behaviour, egocentric, poorer social skills, problematic relationship

Neglectful parenting

parenting style - cold and unresponsive, no rules, uninvolved, indifferent

associated outcome - impulsive behaviour, delinquency, drug or alcohol abuse, suicides

Moral development

growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically

Kohlberg's stages

pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional

Pre-conventional morality

stage 1 - punishment and obedience orientation: doing what is right because of fear of punishment

stage 2 - hedonistic orientation: doing what is right for personal gain, perhaps a reward

Conventional morality

stage 3 - interpersonal concordance orientation: doing what is right according to the majority to be a good boy or girl

stage 4 - law and order orientation: doing what is right because it is your duty and helps society

Post-conventional morality

stage 5 - social contract or legalistic orientation: doing what is right even if it is against the law because the law is too restrictive

stage 6 - universal ethical principles orientation: doing what is right because of our inner conscious which has absorbed the principles of justice and equality and sacredness of life

Changes in body, brain, and thinking in adolescence

Puberty brings about physical changes that lead to psychological changes. Changes in the brain alter the ways adolescents think. Specifically, they develop the capacity for formal operational thought and the ability to control their own thinking.

Feelings and behaviour in adolescence

Early adolescence is a period of shaky self-esteem. It is also a time when conflict with parents, as well as closeness with and conformity to friends, is likely to rise. A particularly difficult challenge for adolescents is the transition from elementary school to junior high or middle school.

Identity and development of self in adolescence

Late adolescence focuses on finding an answer to the question, Who am I? Adolescents begin to develop an integrated self-image as a unique person, an image that often includes ethnic identity.

Lev Vygotsky

to explain cognitive development, focused on the social world of people; viewed cognitive abilities as the product of cultural history

Korean and Chinese children can do arithmetic with three-digit numbers with greater skill than

Australian children. According to research, one of the most important factors explaining this

difference is

A) cultural influences on Piaget's sensorimotor stage.

B) cultural influences on Vygotsky's social scripts.

C) Asian language labels for the numbers 11 to 19.

D) genetics.

C) Asian language labels for the numbers 11 to 19.

Which of the following suggests a genetic basis for gender differences?

A) The media glamorising gender-appropriate behaviour

B) Peer pressure among children to behave in gender-appropriate ways

C) Finding similar gender differences across cultures

D) Differential treatment of boys and girls by parents

C) Finding similar gender differences across cultures

Newborns typically exhibit

A) an inability to discriminate between different tastes

B) well-developed vision

C) a preference for certain smells

D) hearing that is sharper than that of the average adult

C) a preference for certain smells

Linda and Stu are the parents of two teenagers. Stu likes to reason with the children and discuss the limits he is setting. Linda likes to lay down the law and take no arguments from the children. According to the textbook, Stu displays a(n) ___________ parenting style and Linda displays a(n) ___________ parenting style.

A) permissive; controlling

B) authoritative; authoritarian

C) authoritative; controlling

D) authoritarian; authoritative

B) authoritative; authoritarian

Harlow's studies with the two artificial mothers concluded that

A) females isolated at birth from all social contact still develop into good mothers.

B) infant monkeys were motivated by the need for contact and comfort.

C) infant monkeys are more attached to caregivers who provide food than to caregivers who provide comfort.

D) monkeys were able to successfully overcome maternal separation and long-term social isolation.

B) infant monkeys were motivated by the need for contact and comfort.

Which of the following statements about moral reasoning and moral action is true?

A) A false sense of being watched affects whether a person engages in immoral behaviours.

B) The development of moral behaviour requires abstract knowledge alone.

C) Interviews about moral judgments before a test decrease levels of moral action.

D) Having high moral reasoning ability guarantees that a person will act morally.

A) A false sense of being watched affects whether a person engages in immoral behaviours.

Nathan, who is three years old, tried to feed a cookie to his sister's hamster and was surprised

when the hamster refused to eat the cookie. Because Nathan assumed that hamsters like the same

kinds of food as little kids, his schema for hamsters needs to be ___________ according to Piaget.

A) assimilated

B) expanded

C) organised

D) accommodated

D) accommodated

Nellie has just discovered that she is pregnant. She is a smoker and knows she should quit

because nicotine is especially harmful to the foetus during the ___________ stage of development

and leads to ___________.

A) foetal; brain damage

B) embryonic; low birth weight

C) embryonic; intellectual disability

D) foetal; loss of limbs

B) embryonic; low birth weight

Rachel has missed several classes because of family troubles. On the day of the exam, Rachel asks

you if she can copy your answers so she does not fail. According to Kohlberg, how would you respond

if you were using postconventional moral reasoning?

A) 'No way! I could get caught by the instructor and then I'd fail.'

B) 'I cannot let you cheat because it would be unfair to the students who worked hard and attended class.'

C) 'Okay. As a friend, it's my duty to help you.'

D) 'I'll let you copy my answers, but you owe me a favour now.'

B) 'I cannot let you cheat because it would be unfair to the students who worked hard and attended class.'

In Baillargeon's experiments, babies looked longer at impossible events than possible events. The

conclusion drawn from this research was that Piaget

A) was correct - babies do not have mental representations nor any knowledge of physics.

B) underestimated babies - babies have some knowledge of physics.

C) overestimated babies - babies do not have sensorimotor abilities.

D) was irrelevant - Baillargeon's work was unrelated.

B) underestimated babies - babies have some knowledge of physics.