Key Social Research Methods and Concepts

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering research methodologies (interviews, focus groups, surveys, ethnography, observations), sampling techniques, research design terms, and ethical considerations based on the lecture notes.

Interviews

A research method where a researcher asks participants questions to collect detailed information, opinions, experiences, or attitudes through face-to-face, phone, online, or video call interactions.

Member checking

A technique used to achieve validity in interviews by checking responses with participants.

Triangulation

A method of achieving validity by comparing research findings with other methods or cross-referencing information from multiple sources.

Objectivity (Interviews)

The practice of putting one's own researcher views and experiences aside and accurately reporting the responses and experiences of the people being studied.

Observations

A research method involving carefully watching people, usually in a natural setting, over a period of time to learn about patterns of interaction and behavior.

Reactivity (Hawthorne effect)

A phenomenon where people change their behavior because they know they are being observed.

Ethnography

The study of cultural norms and values and the thick description of everyday life and interactions through long-term embedding of the researcher.

Thick description

Rich, detailed descriptions of social life used in ethnography to produce deep understanding of meanings, norms, and behaviors.

Going native

A limitation of ethnography where a researcher becomes too involved or biased within the research environment.

Focus Groups

Observation and analysis of the negotiation of meanings, group dynamics, and nonverbal cues among a group of $5-12$ people for approximately $2$ hours.

Focus Group Size (Sensitive Topic)

A smaller group of participants, typically $5-7$ people, used for complex topics where depth is required.

Surveys

A quantitative data collection method that uses open-ended or closed-ended questions with limited and defined response categories.

Basic research

Research conducted to learn something new or satisfy curiosity without immediate practical uses.

Applied research

Research used for immediate practical purposes, such as identifying unmet needs, finding solutions, or evaluating outcomes.

Literature review

A summary and evaluation of existing research, books, articles, and studies on a particular topic.

Unit of analysis

The specific entity being studied, such as individuals in the context of interviews.

Reliability

The extent to which research can be repeated and produce consistent results.

Replicability

The ability of a study or research method to be repeated by other researchers to achieve similar results.

Validity

The extent to which research measures or reflects what it claims to measure.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings can be applied to a larger population beyond the study sample.

Bias

Any characteristic, experience, knowledge, or attitude that might or does affect the research being conducted.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction or statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

IV (Independent Variable)

The factor that is changed or controlled in a study to test its effect; the variable having the effect.

DV (Dependent Variable)

The factor that is measured and changes; the variable being affected by the independent variable.

Positive relationship

A relationship between variables where as one variable increases, the other variable also increases.

Negative relationship

A relationship between variables where as one variable increases, the other variable decreases.

Univariate analysis

The examination of one variable at a time to describe its patterns or characteristics.

Bivariate analysis

The examination of the relationship between two variables.

Conceptualization

The process of developing precise definitions and meanings for key concepts or variables in research.

Operationalization

The process of deciding how to capture or measure key concepts using specific tools or methods.

Association

When two factors are linked or occur together without one necessarily causing the other.

Causation

When one factor directly causes a change in another, requiring an association, temporal order where the $IV$ happens before the $DV$, and the elimination of plausible alternative explanations.

Confounding variable

Extra factors that may influence both the independent and dependent variables, affecting the accuracy of results.

Sampling frame

The actual list from which a sample is drawn, including as many people as possible from the target population.

Random (Probability) sampling

An overarching category for any sampling method where every member of a population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected.

Response rate

The percentage of individuals who complete and return a survey out of the total number asked to participate.

Oversampling

A technique, often through stratified sampling, used to ensure representation of small groups or minorities.

Participant observation

A research method where the sociologist joins and observes the group being studied to gain an insider perspective.

Non-participant observation

A research method where the sociologist observes a group without taking part, providing a birds-eye view perspective.

Saturation

The point in research where no new information or themes are being discovered.

Rapport

A trusting and comfortable relationship between the researcher and participants used to ensure quality data.

Reporting in the aggregate

Presenting research findings as combined group data to protect the identity of individual participants.

Pseudonyms

False names used for people or places in research to maintain anonymity.

Informed consent

A process where participants are fully informed about a study and agree to participate voluntarily.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

A committee that reviews research to ensure it is ethical and protects participants.

Simple random sampling

A method where each member in the sampling frame is assigned a number and selected using a random number generator.

Systematic random sampling

A method where the researcher starts at a random number on a list and selects every $X^{th}$ person.

Stratified random sampling

A method where the sampling frame is divided into groups, and simple random or systematic sampling is used within each group.

Cluster sampling

A method where the researcher selects naturally-occurring groups in the population and samples everyone within those randomly selected clusters.

Convenience sampling

A non-probability sampling method where participants are chosen based on ease of access.

Purposive sampling

A sampling method where participants are selected because they possess specific characteristics relevant to the study.

Reflexivity

Making ongoing efforts to remain aware of the assumptions, values, methods, and interpretations a researcher brings to the study.