STATISTICS

Statistics

The science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and draw conclusions from data.

Descriptive Statistics

The collection, organization, summarization, and presentation of data.

Inferential Statistics

Generalizing from samples to populations, performing estimations and hypothesis tests, determining relationships among variables, and making predictions.

Variable

A characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.

Population

The entire group of subjects (human or otherwise) that are being studied.

Sample

A subset of the population used for a study to avoid bias.

Hypothesis Testing

Evaluating claims about a population based on information collected from samples.

Levels of Measurement

The different scales used to measure variables, including nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.

Data Collection

The process of gathering data through surveys, interviews, or other methods.

Sampling Techniques

Different methods used to select samples, including random, systematic, stratified, cluster, convenience, and volunteer sampling.

Sampling Error

The difference between the sample results and the true population values due to imperfect representation.

Non-Sampling Error

Bias in the data collection process that leads to inaccurate or misleading results.

Observational Study

A research method where the researcher observes and draws conclusions based on the observations.

Experimental Study

A research method where the researcher manipulates the independent variable to determine its effect on the dependent variable.

Quasi-Experimental Study

A research method used when random assignment of subjects is not possible.

Hawthorne effect

This occurs when a subject participating in an experiment purposefully change their behavior in ways that affect the results

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon where the control group responds similarly to the experimental group due to the belief that they are receiving treatment.

Confounding Variable

A variable that influences the dependent variable but cannot be separated from the independent variable.

Blocking

A technique used to reduce variability by grouping subjects based on certain traits.

Replication

Repeating an experiment in different settings or with different groups to ensure the results are consistent.

Suspect Samples

Questions to consider when evaluating the quality of a sample, including sample size, selection method, and representativeness.

Ambiguous Averages

The need to clarify which measure of average was used and why, such as mean, median, mode, or midrange.

Changing the Subject

Identifying if different values are used to represent the same data, leading to misleading conclusions.

Detached Statistics

Recognizing when a comparison is made without specifying the reference point, leading to confusion.

Implied Connections

Understanding that statements suggesting a relationship or effect do not guarantee the outcome.

Misleading Graphs

Evaluating if the scales and titles of graphs accurately represent the data and avoid misleading interpretations.

Faulty Survey Questions

Identifying biased or poorly worded survey questions that may influence responses.