Phase 2

Transoceanic interconnections

Connections across oceans that facilitated trade and exploration, spurred by state power and economic motives.

Caravel

A small, highly maneuverable ship used by early Portuguese explorers, notable for its lateen sails.

Lateen sails

Triangular sails that allowed ships to tack against the wind, enhancing maneuverability.

Magnetic compass

A navigational tool developed in China that helps maintain direction even when landmarks are absent.

Astrolabe

An instrument used to measure the angle of the sun or stars above the horizon, aiding in latitude estimation.

Dead reckoning

A navigation method that estimates position based on speed and direction, often leading to compounding errors.

Encomienda

A labor system in Spanish America granting colonists the right to extract labor or tribute from Indigenous communities.

Mita

A labor draft system used in the Andes, adapted from Inca traditions for Spanish mining operations.

Chattel slavery

A form of slavery where enslaved individuals are considered property and can be bought or sold.

Columbian Exchange

The transoceanic transfer of animals, plants, diseases, and ideas between Europe, the Americas, and Africa after 1492.

Mercantilism

An economic doctrine emphasizing state control over trade, aiming for a favorable balance of imports and exports.

Joint-stock company

A business model that pools resources from multiple investors to fund larger endeavors, such as exploration.

Maroons

Communities formed by escaped enslaved individuals who created independent settlements, often in remote areas.

Casta system

A hierarchical classification of people in Spanish America based on ancestry, determining social status and legal rights.

Pueblo Revolt (1680)

An organized Indigenous revolt against Spanish colonial rule in present-day New Mexico, aiming to restore autonomy.

Triangular Trade

An Atlantic trade pattern linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas, characterized by the exchange of goods, people, and capital.

Commercial Revolution

A period of expansion in trade and commerce that facilitated the rise of capitalism and new financial practices.

Sternpost rudder

An innovation in ship design that improved steering and maneuverability, especially for long voyages.

Manila galleons

Spanish ships that connected the Americas and Asia, facilitating the trade of goods such as silver and silk.

Consumer revolution

The increase in demand for imported goods in Europe during the expansion of global trade, especially for luxury items.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, observation, and the belief that human society could be studied and improved.

Natural rights

Rights believed to belong to all humans by virtue of being human, not granted by any government.

Social contract

The idea that government is formed by an agreement among the governed to create a state that protects them.

Popular sovereignty

The principle that legitimate political authority comes from the consent of the people.

Separation of powers

A design principle that divides government into branches with distinct powers to prevent tyranny.

Equality before the law

The concept that laws should apply equally to all citizens, undermining legal privilege.

Divine right

The belief that kings were ordained by God to rule, which argued that people had a moral obligation to obey them.

Thomas Hobbes

An Enlightenment thinker who believed government should preserve peace/stability through a powerful ruler.

John Locke

An Enlightenment thinker who argued that people are born equal, and government’s primary role is to secure natural rights.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

An Enlightenment philosopher who believed society should reflect the general will and emphasize community while preserving freedom.

Voltaire

An Enlightenment thinker known for advocating for religious toleration.

Montesquieu

An Enlightenment philosopher who argued for the separation of powers in government.

Adam Smith

An economist who introduced the concept of the 'invisible hand' to explain the self-regulating nature of the economy.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An early advocate for women's political rights, including voting and holding office.

Cesare Beccaria

An Enlightenment thinker who opposed cruel punishment and advocated for justice reform.

Atlantic Revolutions

A series of political upheavals in the late 18th and early 19th centuries across North America, the Caribbean, and Europe.

American Revolution

A conflict between Britain and its North American colonies that resulted in independence and the establishment of constitutional government.

French Revolution

A significant upheaval in France starting in 1789 that transformed the government and political engagement of citizens.

Haitian Revolution

A radical revolution from 1791 to 1804 that overthrew a system of racial slavery in the French colony of Saint-Domingue.

Latin American Revolutions

Independence movements in the early 19th century that led to the breakup of Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule in the Americas.

Industrial Revolution

A major shift from hand production to machine-based manufacturing, primarily beginning in Great Britain in the late 18th century.

Urbanization

The movement of people from rural areas to cities, mainly driven by industrialization.

Liberalism

An ideology emphasizing individual rights, limited government, and free-market economics.

Nationalism

The belief that people who share a common identity should govern themselves and have political self-determination.

Socialism

An ideology advocating for social ownership and democratic control of the means of production, often in response to inequalities produced by capitalism.

Marxism

A socialist ideology developed by Karl Marx, arguing that class struggle is a central aspect of societal progression and capitalism's contradictions will lead to its downfall.

Imperialism

The practice of extending a state's control over other territories and peoples.

Industrialization

The process of change from an agrarian to an industrial society, characterized by the growth of factories and mass production.

Economic motives

Reasons for imperialism that include the desire for raw materials, markets for goods, and profit from investment opportunities.

Direct Rule

A method of imperial governance where the imperial power replaces local leadership with its own officials and legal systems.

Indirect Rule

A method of imperial governance that maintains local rulers or institutions as long as they follow imperial demands.

Sphere of Influence

A region where a foreign power has dominant economic privileges but does not exert full political control.

Gunboat Diplomacy

The use of military threats to coerce a weaker state into complying with demands.

Social Darwinism

The misapplication of evolutionary ideas to human societies, often used to justify imperial dominance.

Sepoy Rebellion

The 1857 uprising of Indian soldiers against British control, resulting from grievances and leading to direct crown rule in India.

Maji Maji Rebellion

A revolt in German East Africa from 1905 to 1907 against oppressive colonial rule and forced labor.

Meiji Restoration

The period in Japan beginning in 1868 when rapid modernization and industrialization occurred to resist Western domination.

Opium Wars

Conflicts between China and Britain (1839-1860) over British trade of opium, resulting in unequal treaties favoring Britain.

The Berlin Conference

The 1884 meeting where European powers discussed and formalized their claims in Africa, leading to rapid colonization.

Indentured Labor

A labor system where individuals sign contracts to work for a fixed period in exchange for passage, wages, and sometimes housing.

Diaspora

A dispersed population that maintains connections to an original homeland, often forming multicultural societies in new locations.

Economic Imperialism

Control exerted by foreign powers through investment, debt, and trade agreements without formal colonization.

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

A U.S. law that restricted Chinese immigration, reflecting racialized immigration policies of the time.