Bio lab 104 midterm/final

Surplus reproduction

on average each pair of parent has only 2 surviving offspring

HW Theorem

model suggests that allele frequencies within a population will stay the same forever unless something disturbs this equilibrium

5 Forces of evolution that disrupt HWE

genetic drift, natural selection, non-random mating, mutations, migration (gene flow) 

Relative fitness

how successful different genotypes are at reproducing

X^2 close to 0

null hypothesis is correct no difference between observed and expected

large x² value

deviation between observed and expected REJECT null hypothesis 

P value > 0.05

reject hypothesis (not in HWE, evolution occurred) 

P value < 0.05

accept hypothesis

Null hypothesis for chi square

oberved=expected

Null hypothesis

there is no difference between what we saw and HWE model 

Alternation of generations

 life cycle of plants with multicellular haploid and multicellular diploid phases

Meiosis

happens in the diploid sporophyte stage, producing spores that germinate to become a new gametophyte

Sporophyte

diploid, produces spores (haploid) (process is meiosis)

spore grows up to

gametophyte

Gametophyte (haploid)

Plants produce gametes by mitosis of the haploid life stages

Mitosis

cells divide, identical copy of existing cells

Gamete

has to fuse with another cell to grow up ex. 2 gametes to come together in fertilization to form a zygote 

Zygote

 diploid that grows up into embryonic plant 

Pollen

hard, dried coating that protects the sperm producing gametophyte and allows it to move through the air, resistance to environmental stress, must be rehydrated to grow

Seeds

important, contain the embryonic plant produced by fertilization, a food source, and a hard protective coating

Inhibition

water uptake, activates the plant’s metabolism and allows plant to grow

Female gametes (eggs)

produced by ovuoles inside ovary of the flower

Ovary

 located as base of the pistol

At top is a pistol

stigma, which catches pollen, Pollen germinates and grows down the stalk known as the style to reach ovary

Male gametes (sperm) produced

inside the pollen grains on the flower anthers on top of long stamen

Stalk of stamen

filament

Corolla

 consists of petals used to attract animals

angiosperms and gymnosperms

have pollens and sperms

angiosperms produce

flowers and fruits

genosperms

woody, seed producing plants (connifers)

conditions needed for evolution by natural selection

heritable, variation in population, fitness, offspring survive and reproduce

calyx

consists of sepals to protect the flower as it is developing

Perfect flowers

male and female reproductive structures

Complete flowers

calyx and corolla

Double fertilization

produces both an embryo and a food source for it - second sperm from gametophyte fuses with ovule to make triploid endosperms - only occurs in angiosperm

first sperm in double fertilization

fuses with egg to make a zygote that grows into embryo

The second sperm in double fertilization

 fused with two center nuclei in the plant that grows into the endosperm 

endosperm

triploid - holds the food

Plesiomorphy

ancestral character state shared by members of clade

Apomorphy

derived trait that arose new in a particular group

Synamorphies

shared derived character states - trait found in 2 of more descendent taxa

Homoplasies

not inherited from a common ancestor, but rather evolved independently

Analogous traits

don’t show species-relatedness

Pleisomorphies

ancestral traits shared by members of a clade that were inherited from a distant common ancestor

Outgroup

a species changed before the group we wish to study- may be used to establish ancestral character states 

Allometry

change in size accompanied by a change in shape, literally different measurements

Isometry

organism’s body parts grow at the same rate, allowing the organism to maintain the same shape and proportions throughout development

Bulk flow

fast long-distance movement of fluid driven by pressure differences, enables oxygen transport, nutrient distribution, hormone signaling 

Diffusion

net movement of molecules from high to low concentrations due to random motion 

Ontogeny

development

Phylogeny

evolution

If alpha = 1

isometry

If alpha > 1

 positive allometry

If alpha is < 1

negative allometry

y=kx^alpha

when it is not log transformed

slope

alpha value on graphs log transformed

you can’t have

negative alpha value

phenetics

biological classification that groups organisms based on overall similarity in observable traits

negative allometry

increasing rate of something @slower rate than body as a whole, result in smaller proportion individuals

positive allometry

increasing @faster rate than body as a whole, proportionally larger individuals

Primary papers

original research, first-hand reports, detailing experiment and procedures, discoveries, containing original raw data 

Peer-Reviewed

quality control process, non-primary material, Focus on quality assurance and validity, ensuring the research is reliable, rigorous, and fits the scientific field.

Confirmation Bias

scientists mostly search for what they already believe to be true 

P-hacking

choosing a subset of the data that shows p<0.05 while ignoring the rest and/or collecting data until it becomes significant, then stopping 

Selective reporting

scientists ignore the experiments that don’t support their hypothesis

HARKing

Hypothesis After Results are Known

Naive Realism

tendency to believe that we ourselves are objects to our perception of reality, those who disagree must be perceiving things incorrectly (belief superiority)

Dunning-Kruger Effect

The belief that you are better at cognitive tasks than you are - “illusion of superiority.

Quadrant

a piece of equipment used to study ecosystems and the distribution and abundance of organisms, square frames placed on the ground 

Abundance

 number of individuals per species 

Uniform Dispersion

even spacing between individuals

Uniform Dispersion causes:

limited resources, territorial competition

random dispersion

individuals scattered unpredictably

random dispersion causes

lack of interaction, random environmental factor, may lead to mix of ecological interactions

clumped dispersion

individuals clump together in groups

clumped dispersion causes

social behavior, resource avaliability, environmental factors

rA

average distance

rE

expected distance

R=

rA/rE

R=1

dispersed randomly

R>1

irregularly spaced

R<1

clustered

census

total population

Cooperation

an outcome in which two or more interacting individuals each receive a net benefit from their joint actions

Defecting

 rat out a partner, you will benefit if they cooperate, if you both deflect no one benefits.

Cooperation hypothesis

 reciprocity and kin selection 

Reciprocity

The exchange of cooperative and altruistic acts among individuals 

you scratch my back i will scratch yours

kin selection

helping relatives is worth the risk

Lichen

mutualism, they consist of an algal species and a fungal species living in symbiosis 

lichen algae species

called the photobiont that photosynthesizes

lichen fungal species

called the mycobiont that prvides protection, moisture retention

lichen bioindicators

presence, absence, and abundance give indications of the degree of health in the environment

lichen diverse ecological role

biological soil crusts in desserts, producers in arctic, nutrient cycling

Osmosis

water flows from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration

Osmoregulators

internal salinity is kepy constant regardless of environment

Osmosmoters

allow water from the environment to flow into the cells

Correlations Test

for relationships between continuous variables. Heights, weights, GPAs

T-tests

used to test hypotheses about differences in means of continuous variables between two different groups or categories.

Paired T-tests

used to examine changes in individuals in response to a treatment.