Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Body

Flashcards covering key anatomical and physiological concepts related to the human body, including structures and functions of the sensory system, cardiovascular system, and other important topics.

Tactile receptors

Most numerous type of mechanoreceptors that respond to touch.

Gustatory pathway

The path from gustatory cells (taste buds) through facial or glossopharyngeal nerves to the insula.

Olfactory epithelium

A tissue that lines the superior nasal cavity and contains olfactory receptor cells.

Extrinsic muscles of the eye

Muscles that move the eye in various directions.

Lacrimal gland

A gland that produces and secretes tears.

Cornea

The clear anterior portion of the eye.

Iris

The pigmented part of the eye that regulates the size of the pupil.

Photoreceptor cells

Cells in the retina that convert light into nerve impulses.

Accommodation

The ability of the lens to change shape to focus on objects at different distances.

Presbyopia

Age-related farsightedness due to loss of lens flexibility.

Cataracts

Clouding of the lens, commonly occurring with age.

Diabetic retinopathy

Development of unstable blood vessels in the eye, leading to potential blindness.

Strabismus

Misalignment of the eyes due to unequal strength in extrinsic muscles.

Auricle

The funnel-shaped external part of the ear.

Tympanic membrane

Also known as the eardrum, this membrane vibrates in response to sound.

Auditory ossicles

Three small bones in the middle ear that transmit sound waves to the inner ear.

Semicircular canals

Structures in the inner ear that sense angular movement.

Endolymph

Fluid found within the semicircular canals and cochlear duct.

Otolithic membrane

A gelatinous layer in the inner ear that contains otoliths involved in balance.

Myocardial infarction

A blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, commonly known as a heart attack.

Cardiac conduction system

The network of cells that initiates and propagates electrical impulses in the heart.

Atrioventricular valves

Valves located between the atria and ventricles that ensure unidirectional blood flow.

Hematocrit

The percentage of volume of red blood cells in the blood.

Deep vein thrombosis (DVT)

The formation of blood clots in deep veins, typically in the legs.

Varicose veins

Enlarged veins due to weakened valves that allow backflow and pooling of blood.

Taste Buds

located on dorsal surface of tounge in epitheleal and connective tissues called papillae

Olfactory nerves

bundles of axons of olfactory receptor cells

Olfactory pathway

Olfactory Nerve → olfactory bulb → olfactory tract → temporal lobe →

eyelids

folds of the skin that help to protect the eye

medial canthus

where upper lid and lower lid meet towards midline

Lateral canthus

where upper lid and lower lid meet, away from midline

Lacrimal caruncle

pink fleshy structure on medial corner of eye

conjunctiva

lining of eyelids over the anterior surface of eye, does not cover cornea

Lacrimal canaliculi

little canals that will drain excess tears off surface of eye

Lacrimal sac

where tears drain into

Nasolacrimal duct

opens into nasal cavity

Lacrimal pathway

lacrimal glands → lacrimal canaliculi → lacrimal sac → nasolacrimal duct

Anterior cavity of eye

space in front of lens

Posterior cavity of eye

space behind lens

Fibrous tunic

superficial layer of eye, has cornea and sclera

Sclera

white of the eye

Vascular tunic

middle layer of eye, contains choroid, ciliary body, iris ,pupil, circular sphincter pupillae, and radial dilator pupillae

Choroid

has vast network of capillaries supplying nutrient and oxygen to retina

Ciliary body

continuous with choroid, always attatched to suspensory ligaments, changes lens shape

Pupil

hole that light can enter through

Circular sphincter pupillae

layer of muscle immediately adjacent to pupil, when contracts, pupil gets smaller

radial dilator pupillae

muscle that encircles the iris, increasing pupil size when it contracts.

Retina

deepest layer of eye, contains neural layer, rods and cones

Neural layer

houses photoreceptors and associated neurons

Retina Receives…

light and converts the energy into nerve impulses

Rods

dim light, more numerous

Cones

bright light, color

Bipolar cels

synapse with photoreceptors and ganglion cells

Ganglion cells

innermost layer of the retina: axons of these cells leave retina an form optic nerve, area of sharpest vision inside of macula

Optic Chiasm

axons from retina cross to other side here

Optic tracts

extend laterally, posteriorly from chiasms

Optic radiation

extends from thalamus to occipital lobe

Pathway eye

Cornea → anterior cavity → posterior cavity → retina (photoreceptors) → optic nerve → optic chiasm → optic tract → optic radiation → occipital lobe

external acoustic meatus

the ear canal that transmits sound waves to the tympanic membrane.

Cerumenous glands

produce cerumen (earwax) and protects things from getting into inner ear

Middle ear

has auditory tube, auditory ossicles

Auditory tube

connects middle ear to nasopharynx, drainage, equalization of pressure

Outer to middle ear pathway

auricle/ pinna → external acoustic meatus → tympanic membrane → malleus → incus → stapes

Crista ampullaris

elevated region of ampulla covered by an epithelium of hair cells

Capula

hair cells embed into an overlying gelatinus dome

Stereocilia

hair-like projections on hair cells that detect fluid movement

Cochlear duct

middle region filled with endolymph

Basilar membrane

floor of cochlear duct, has hair dells

Scala vestibule

upper chamber of the cochlea filled with perilymph

Scala tympani

lower chamber of the cochlea filled with perilymph

Paralymph

fluid in two chambers of cochlea

Organ of corti

spiral organ that contains hair cells, projecting into overlying gelatinous mass called tectorial membrane

Oval window

junction between stapes and inner ear

Inner ear pathway

oval window→ cochlea (cochlear duct)→ organ of corti → cochlear branch → vestibulocochlear nerve → temporal lobe

Pitch discrimination

sound waves of various frequencies stimulate diff parts of basilar membrane

Loudness discrimination

determined by source of sound (amp of vibration)

Otitis

ear infection, Externa outer, Media middle ,interna inner

Hormones

can only affect target cells or organs that have receptors for specific hormone

Feedback loop

way we regulate hormone secretions

Positive feedbakc

pushes levels to extreme

Pituitary gland

a small gland located at the base of the brain that regulates various endocrine functions by releasing hormones.

Tropic hormones

act on other endocrine structures

Thyroid gland

left and right globes connected by a midline isthmus

Antagonistic hormones

opposite effects work together to maintain homeostasis

Thymus

an organ located behind the sternum, crucial for immune system development. It produces thymosin, which stimulates T-cell maturation.

Adrenal glands

two small glands located on top of each kidney that produce hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, regulating metabolism, stress response, and immune function.

Buffy coat

contains leukocytes and platelets, only makes up 1%

Plasma

liquid portion of blood

Leukocytes

white blood cells, larger than erythrocytes and can leave blood vessles

Platelets

blood clotting

Erythrocytes do what?

transport respiratory gases

Hemopoiesis

production of formed elements, continually occurring in bone marrow

Rouleau

way erythrocytes move through vessles, lined up single file

Anemia

below normal oxygen carrying capacity of the blood

Pernicious anemia

body doesn’t make enough blood cells due to lack of b12

Hemolytic anemia

rbc destroyed faster than produced

Polycythemia

high number of red blood cells, athletes, high atitude, cancer, bone marrow disorder

Sickle cell anemia

sickle shaped cells, can rupture, likely to catch onto others and cause blockages

Granulocytes

are a type of white blood cell characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, play a key role in the immune response, and include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

Neutrophils

first cell to appear at infection, phagocytizes bacteria