unit 2 gov

Congress Structure: Bicameral Legislature

Under Article 1 of Constitution, Congressional Power is divided into two houses.

Senate

Each state is represented equally, each state has 2 representatives and therefore 2 votes. Considered more mature body (30+), 6-year terms (to be more insulated from public pressure), more constitutional responsibility than House members. Less connected to the people they represent, deal with big issues. Informal Debate:

informal Debate:

Unlimited Debate on bills.

Filibuster:

action designed to prolong debate and delay or prevent a vote on a bill, resolution, amendment, or other debatable question.

Senate-specific powers

advice and consent to ratify treaties, and confirm presidential appointments.

House of Representatives

Each state is represented by population; more populous states have more representatives and less populous states have less. Each state is guaranteed at least one representative. Federal law caps the number of representatives at 435. Rep per state determined by census every 10 years. More scrappy, house members 25+. 2-year terms means they have to be more responsive to the people who elected them. Closer to the issues that people in their districts care about. Less likely to form bipartisan coalitions. Structured Debate

Structured Debate

Rules that Restrict Debate to an hour per member.

House-specific powers

initiate all tax and spending bills (power of the purse), impeachment.

How Laws Are Made

Both houses of Congress have to agree by vote on identical versions of the bill, and both houses need simply a majority vote. If they do, it then gets passed to the president for signing.

Conference Committee

Formed if both houses cant agree on an identical version of a bill; reconciles differences and produces conference report.

Conference Report

final compromise version of bill produced by conference committee; must be voted on without amendment.

Markup Session

committee process where bill is revised, amended, and rewritten line-by-line before being reported out.

Quorum

minimum number of members required to conduct business (House 218, Senate 51).

Voice Vote / Roll Call Vote / Recorded Vote

voice vote = verbal approval; roll call = individual recorded votes; recorded vote = electronic tally.

Article 1 Section 8 - Enumerated Powers

List of exactly what powers belong to Congress including taxation, defense, commerce, currency.

Power of the Purse

Congress controls federal taxation and spending.

Commerce Clause

Congress may regulate interstate commerce; major expansion of federal power.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Congress may pass laws needed to execute enumerated powers.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

confirmed implied powers and federal supremacy; states cannot tax federal institutions.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

limited Commerce Clause; struck down Gun-Free School Zones Act.

United States v. Morrison (2000)

limited Commerce Clause again; parts of Violence Against Women Act struck down.

Speaker of the House

House majority leader; controls debate recognition, committee assignments, legislative agenda.

Parliamentary Procedure

system of rules controlling debate and speaking order.

Majority and Minority Leaders

lead party strategy and manage legislative priorities.

Majority and Minority Whips

enforce party discipline and ensure party-line voting.

Senate President

Vice President of U.S.; only votes to break ties.

President Pro Tempore

senior majority senator who presides in absence of VP.

Senate Majority Leader

sets agenda and controls Senate floor scheduling.

Committees

smaller groups that draft, debate, and amend legislation.

Standing Committee

permanent committees handling ongoing issues.

Select Committee

temporary committee for specific purpose or investigation.

Joint Committee

committee with members from both chambers.

Conference Committee

resolves differences between House and Senate bills.

Committee Chairs

very powerful members who control hearings and agenda.

Senioritiy System

traditional method where longer-serving members gain leadership positions.

House Rules Committee

controls what bills reach floor and rules for debate; extremely powerful gatekeeper.

Committee of the Whole

House procedure allowing faster debate with reduced quorum (100 members).

Discharge Petition

forces bill out of committee with majority House vote.

Filibuster

extended debate used to delay or block legislation.

Cloture Rule

ends filibuster with 3/5 Senate vote (60 senators).

Unanimous Consent

all senators agree to proceed without delay or objection.

Filibuster Threat

used strategically even if not carried out; influences negotiation.

How A Bill Becomes Law

bill introduced → committee → floor debate → vote → other chamber → conference committee if needed → president.

Non-Germane Riders

unrelated provisions added to bills.

Pork Barrel Spending

spending for local districts to gain political support.

Logrolling

vote trading between members.

Gridlock

when Congress cannot pass legislation due to polarization or divided government.

Polarization

increasing ideological distance between parties.

Entitlements

mandatory programs like Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid.

Mandatory Spending

required by law.

Discretionary Spending

annual spending decided by Congress.

Deficit Spending

spending more than revenue.

Budget Resolution

set overall spending limits for Congress (guides appropriations).

Appropriations Bills

actual funding bills that allocate money to agencies.

Authorization vs Appropriation

authorization creates program; appropriation funds it.

Ideological Divisions

liberal vs conservative divide causing gridlock.

Divided Government

opposing parties control presidency and Congress.

Delegate Model

representatives vote with constituents.

Trustee Model

representatives vote with judgment.

Politico Model

mix of delegate and trustee.

Partisan Model

voting strictly along party lines.

Incumbency Advantage

higher reelection rate due to resources, visibility, and casework.

Franking Privilege

free mailing to constituents.

Casework

helping constituents with government problems.

Safe Seat

district where one party almost always wins.

Single-Member District

one representative per district system.

Gerrymandering

drawing districts to benefit a party.

Packing

concentrating opposition voters into few districts.

Cracking

splitting opposition voters across districts.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

one-person-one-vote principle under Equal Protection Clause.

Reynolds v. Sims (1964)

required equal population in state legislative districts.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

struck down racial gerrymandering based primarily on race.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

federal protection against racial discrimination in voting and districting.

Policy Agenda

president’s set of priorities.

Formal Powers

explicit Article II powers.

Veto

reject bill; override requires 2/3 Congress.

Pocket Veto

bill dies if Congress adjourns within 10 days.

Commander in Chief

president leads military.

War Powers Resolution (1973)

limits president’s military deployment without Congress approval.

Bargaining and Persuasion

president influences Congress using negotiation.

Executive Order

presidential directive with force of law.

Signing Statement

explains interpretation of law.

Executive Agreement

international agreement without Senate approval.

Advice and Consent

Senate approves treaties and appointments.

Advice and Consent (Treaties)

Senate must approve foreign treaties by 2/3 vote.

Ambassadors

diplomatic representatives to foreign countries.

Cabinet

heads of executive departments requiring Senate approval.

White House Staff

assist president; no Senate approval.

Federal Court Appointments

lifetime judicial appointments confirmed by Senate.

Borking

blocking judicial nominees for ideological reasons.

Federalist 70

argues for strong single executive.

22nd Amendment

limits presidents to two terms.

State of the Union Address

annual presidential address to Congress.

Bully Pulpit

presidential influence over public opinion.

Fireside Chats

FDR radio talks explaining policies.

SCOTUS Structure

Supreme Court → Courts of Appeals → District Courts.

Original Jurisdiction

case heard first in Supreme Court.

Appellate Jurisdiction

case reviewed from lower courts.

Judicial Review

power to declare laws unconstitutional.

Writ of Certiorari

request for Supreme Court review.