Conversational Analysis

Conversation

The basic, prototypical form of language use where two or more participants freely alternate turns outside institutional settings.

Sequential organisation

The patterned, ordered structure of turns and actions in conversation.

Inductive method

Building theory from patterns observed across many transcripts.

Turn-taking

The system governing how speakers alternate turns with minimal overlap and minimal gaps.

Turn Constructural Unit (TCU)

The smallest unit that can complete a turn (sentence, clause, phrase, word).

Transition Relevance Place (TRP)

A point where a turn may legitimately pass to another speaker.

Speaker-selection

When the current speaker selects the next speaker

Static context

Context is considered to consist of a set of variables that encircles an utterance or a stretch of discourse. 

Dynamic context

Context is not given, but is established during the dynamic process of utterance production and comprehension.

Social Action Value

The true motivation behind the utterance

Frames

The principles that define “what is going on” in an interaction.

Ethnomethodology

The study of how members use commonsense methods to produce orderly social life. 

Sacks, Schlegoff and Jefferson

Founded Conversation Analysis

Rule 1

S1 may choose S2

Rule 2

S2 may self select

Rule 3

S1 may self select

Overlap

The TRP has not formally been reached by someone begins to speak anyway. The TRP is predicatable.

Interruption

The TRP has not been reached but someone else speaks. The TRP was NOT predictable.

Backchannels

Words that show active listening but don’t actually take a turn. Aren’t defined as interruptions as they are not full turns.

Gaps

Silence where somebody else is expected to say something contextually

Lapse

Silence where no one is expected to talk

Attributable silence

Silence has been given to someone specifically (e.g. if someone has been asked a question, it is their silence)

Non-attributable silence

Silence that is not attributed to anyone in particular.

Action sequences

A structured series of social actions (e.g., question → answer) that participants recognise as belonging together.

First pair part (FPP)

The initiating action in an adjacency pair (e.g., question, offer, greeting)

Second pair part (SPP)

The responsive action (e.g., answer, acceptance, return greeting).

Adjacency pairs

A two‑part, ordered, type‑linked sequence produced by different speakers

Conditional relevance

The property that an FPP makes a particular SPP expectable and accountable.

Insertion sequence

A sequence inserted between FPP and SPP to clarify or check something before the main response. (A, B, B, A)

Intertwined sequency

Two adjacency pairs are intertwined (e.g. apology and minimization, then question-answer)

Pre-sequence

A preliminary action that checks preconditions for a projected action (e.g., pre‑invitation, pre‑request).

Burundi

Turn taking is pre allocated by the rank of the participants (power dynamics have an effect)

Pre-closing

Utterances such as ‘okay okay’ ‘all right’ that indicate that the conversation is ending, open the floor for the other party to mention any deferred mentionables before closing the conversation.

Next turn repair initiator (NTRI)

A turn that invites repair of the prior turn in the next turn. Often seen in other-initiated self repair.

Preference structure

A structural asymmetry in how alternative SPPs are designed (not psychological preference).

Preferred response

A socially affiliative, structurally simple, immediate response (e.g., acceptance, agreement).

Dispreferred response

A socially delicate, delayed, hedged, or accounted‑for response (e.g., refusal, disagreement).

Delay

Silence or hesitation marking a dispreferred action.

Preface

Markers like “well…” signalling a dispreferred upcoming action.

Account

An explanation or justification accompanying a dispreferred response.

Mitigation

Softening devices used to reduce face‑threat.

Action chains

A second response is not needed (e.g. after an assessment) but still makes apt for a second response (e.g. assessment ‘It is a nice day’ ‘Yes it’s beautiful’)

Repair

Mechanisms for fixing problems in speaking, hearing, or understanding.

Self-initiated Self-repair

Speaker identifies and fixes their own trouble source (preferred).

Other-initiated Self-repair

Recipient signals trouble; speaker repairs.

Other-repair

Recipient fixes the trouble source (least preferred)

Repair initiation

The point where a participant signals a problem

Topic

Current matter under discussion - not fixed but can be interactionally constructed

Topical coherence

The maintenance of a topic across turns.

Topic shift

Movement to a new topic, often marked

First topic slot

The position after openings where the first main topic is introduced.

Summons-answer sequence

Opening structure in telephone calls (e.g., phone rings → “Hello?”).

Identification/recognition sequence

Establishing who is speaking - good to find out relationship between people

Greeting exchange

Mutual greetings in openings

Pre-closing

A turn that signals readiness to end the conversation (e.g., “Okay then…”).

Terminal exchange

Final closing turns

Politeness

The way linguistic conduct enables people to interact harmoniously and recognize one another as fellow human beings

Face

A concept derived from Goffman referring to a person’s public self-image or self-esteem, which is at risk during interaction.

Brown and Levinson

Self image consists of negative and positive face. Face is not bestowed upon you but something that you carry with you throughout your whole life

Goffman

Face is something given to you by society, it can be taken away and bestowed.

Negative face

A person’s desire:

• not to be imposed upon,

• to act freely,

• to maintain autonomy and independence.

Positive face

A person’s desire:

• to be liked,

• approved of,

• understood,

• admired,

• treated as a friend or equal.

Face-Threatening Act

Any communicative act that threatens someone’s positive or negative face

E.g. requests, complaints, criticism, interruption

Redressive language

Language used to compensate for or soften a face-threatening act (hedges, indirectness, humour)

Bald-on-record

Performing an FTA directly without redress or mitigation.

Positive Politeness

Politeness oriented toward the addressee’s positive face by emphasizing solidarity, friendliness, shared identity, or approval.

Strategies of positive politeness

• Notice/attend to H

• Use in-group identity markers / Assert common ground

• Joke

• Offer/promise

• Include speaker and hearer together

• Give reasons

• Slang

• Compliments

Negative politeness

Politeness oriented toward the addressee’s negative face by minimizing imposition and respecting autonomy

Negative politeness strategies

• Be conventionally indirect

• Question/hedge

• Minimize imposition

• Apologize

• Passive (omits the speaker/hearer)

• Past tense

• General extenders

Off-record politeness

An indirect strategy where the speaker hints rather than states intentions explicitly, allowing plausible deniability.

Off-record strategies

• Be ambiguous

• Presuppose

• Use ellipsis/incomplete utterances

Brown and Levinson formula of FTA’s

Wx = D(S,H) + P(H,S) + Rx

Social distance (D)

The degree of familiarity or closeness between speakers.

Power Differential (P)

he relative social power or status difference between participants in an interaction.

Rank of imposition (R)

The seriousness or burden of a request or action imposed on another person.

On Record

Communicating openly and directly without hiding communicative intentions.

Honorifics

Special linguistic forms marking social hierarchy, status, or respect. The chapter discusses whether honorifics are genuine politeness strategies or simply social conventions.

Culpeper

Distinguishes 3 types of impoliteness. target can be someone else other than the hearer, rudeness can be directed at a 3^rd party (Different from B&L)

Affective impoliteness

Expresses the speakers negative feelings and emotion towards the target. 

Coersive impoliteness

Rude to the target in order to get them to do something. (threats, orders etc.) 

Entertaining impoliteness

Having fun at the targets expense (often directed at a 3^rd party) 

Priority topic

The main reason of the interaction

Post-greeting

Often a simple question of ‘How are you’ - ritual and polite rather than wanting to gain any new information

Reformulation

Changing the structure / your words to correct misunderstandings