bio final made a day before the exam

currently 12:27 am

biological macromolecule

large, complex substituted organic molecules with specific roles in organisms

monomers

single unit building blocks of larger molecules

polymers

long chain of monomers, large molecules; Four Major Groups: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids

carbohydrates

composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; used primarily as source of energy in cellular respiration; some carbohydrates function as structural compounds

monosaccharides

simplest carbohydrates, monomers; single-ringed; also called sugars; names end in –ose

isomers

two molecules that share the same molecular formula but different structural formulas

disaccharides

double-ringed sugar; form through dehydration synthesis 

dehydration synthesis

formation of a bond between monomers caused by the removal of water

hydrolysis

breaking of a bond between monomers by adding water

polysaccharides

complex carbohydrates/polymers; made up of chains of monosaccharides

starch

molecule in which plants store excess sugar in roots, stems, and leaves; easily digested

cellulose

tough, structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls; cannot be digested

glycogen

molecules used by animals to store excess sugar in the liver (4-6 hr supply).  Animal starch, highly branched

chitin

tough structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of insects, spiders, and crustaceans

proteins

contain C,H,O,N,S

- found in hair, nails, skin, muscle, and feathers (structure)

- perform functions: hormones, antibodies, and enzymes

Amino Acids

- monomers of proteins

- 20 different types

Polypeptides

- polymers; long chains of amino acids

- range in size from 50 amino acids to 100,000 amino acids

Protein

One or more polypeptides folded into specific shape

Enzymes

- Organic catalysts

- names end in –ase; Lipase, Catalase, Amylase

- react only with a substrate that matches its unique 3D shape

 Catalyst

a substance that speeds up chemical reactions without being changed/destroyed itself

Substrate

the specific substance(s) undergoing a chemical reaction enzyme temporarily bonds to the substrate(s)

Denaturation

- destruction of the normal shape of the protein, no longer matches shape of the substrate

- caused by changes in pH and high temperature

Activation Energy

Energy needed to start a chemical reaction

Lipids

- contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

- insoluble in water (hydrophobic/non-polar)

- reserve energy in animals

- includes triglycerides (fats and oils), waxes, 

  and steroids

Triglycerides

large lipid polymers found in fat/oils

made of fatty acids and glycerol

Phospholipid

- special type of triglyceride found within cell membranes       

- both polar and nonpolar

Nucleic Acids

Contain the code which stores hereditary information

Nucleotide

monomer; composed of: 1. 5 carbon sugar

2. Phosphate group

3. Nitrogen Base

DNA Nucleotide

a. Contains deoxyribose sugar

b. Possible bases:

- thymine

- guanine

- cytosine

- adenine

RNA Nucleotide:

a. Contains ribose sugar

b. Possible bases:

- uracil

- guanine

- cytosine

- adenine

DNA Function

a. Copied during cell division

b. Found only in the nucleus

c. Stores the genetic code; determines protein structure

RNA Function

a. Temporary copy of genetic code

b. Found in nucleus, ribosome, cytoplasm of the cell

c. Directly used in protein synthesis

Prokaryotic Cells

- simplest, most ancient/oldest types of cell

- found only in bacteria; no nucleus and no membrane bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells

-  more modern, complex cells 

- contain nucleus and “membrane-bound” organelles

- found in plants, animals, fungi, protists

Cell Membrane

Outer boundary of the cell; separates the cell from the external environment

Regulates what goes in or out of cell

Cytosol

Clear fluid filling the cell in which organelles are suspended

Nucleus

contains the genetic material; controls the activities of the cell

Surrounded by nuclear membrane

Nucleolus

Found within nucleus, site where ribosomes are made

Endoplasmic Reticulum

“intracellular highway”; system of transport tubules within the cell

Ribosomes

Location where proteins are assembled; most numerous organelle

Mitochondria

“Powerhouse” of the cell; location where ATP is made by aerobic respiration

Lysosome

Contain digestive enzymes, break down foods and worn out cell parts

Peroxisome

Small, membrane bound, contain toxic peroxides that are safely broken down

Cytoskeleton

Provides shape and support for the cell

Vacuole

Storage organelles, stores materials and wastes

Centrioles

Aid in cell division

Cell Walls

Found outside cell membrane, made of cellulose; provides support

Chloroplasts

 Contain chlorophyll; site of photosynthesis

Chromoplasts

Contain accessory pigments that aid in photosynthesis

Leukoplasts

Store starch

DNA replication

DNA making a copy of itself prior to cell division

G₁ Stage

Cell volume increases; cell differentiation/growth completed; cell begins to function

G₀ Stage

Stage outside the cell cycle in which cells do not copy their DNA and do not prepare to divide; many cells, such as mature nervous cells in the human body, are in this stage; may last weeks or indefinitely

S Stage

DNA Replication occurs; all cell activity ceases as replication is completed; the onset of the S Stage is triggered by a buildup of the hormone “S-Cyclin”

G₂ Stage

Cell function resumes; cell increases in volume as all cell contents double in preparation for cell division