Everything but 3.2 Unit 3

Schemas

Mental framework that can change. It organizes information as we develop.

Assimilation

Facing new information with the knowledge of pre-existing schemas (don’t change) For example, a child might call an ocean a lake because its schema includes blue bodies of water to be classified as a lake.

Accommodation

Changing the pre-existing schema or adding a new schema when learning new information

Sensorimotor stage

First of piaget’s stages. Lasts for roughly first two years of life. During this stage, children begin to understand that their movements are tied to sensory satisfaction. A child engages in motor activities that bring a desirable result.

Object Permanence

At eight months of age, a child begins to understand that objects exists even when hidden.

Preoperational stage

Second stage of piaget’s cognitive development stages. Lasting roughly age 2-7. The state of mind that cannot yet perform such operations as combining or separating ideas or using logic. Children in this stage can begin to see objects as symbols and often demonstrate this ability by exhibiting pretend play.

Mental symbols

internal cognitive tools—such as images, words, or gestures—that stand for external objects, experiences, or abstract concepts not currently present to the senses

Pretend Play

engaging in activities to use small ideas in representing the world. Done by children in preoperational stage (using a dollhouse to play “school” or “family”)

Animism

In preoperational where children believe inanimate objects have feelings

Egocentrism

When an individual sees the world only through their perspective, children in preoperational may have this trait

Theory of Mind

Developmental aspect added to Piaget’s findings in which children understand that other people may see the world from a different perspective than they do

Concrete operational stage

Third stage of Piaget. From ages 7-11 where the child exhibits two dimensional thinking and conservation (reversibility as well)

Conservation

Children in preoperational are unable to understand think (since they exhibit one dimensional thinking). The idea that an object’s mass may not change even though the shape is different. For example, a tall glass may hold the same amount of water as a short, fat glass.

Formal Operational stage

Fourth and final stage of Piaget’s theoretical model. In early adolescence where children are able to think about constructs and ideas that do not physically exist in this world. Understanding abstract concepts.

Abstract concepts/thinking

Virtue and honesty, even though these are not tangible objects, children understand sarcasm, which requires the recognition that language used in that way doesn’t not convey its literal meaning. (Understood by children in the formal operational stage)

Hypothetical Situations

imaginative scenarios used to explore decision-making, ethics, and creativity. Children are able to reason through this in formal operational stage

Zone of proximal development

the difference between what a learner can do without help and what a learner can do with help to suggest the steps to making children more independent.

Scaffolding

Named for structures that temporarily support builders as they work on construction. When applied psychologically, they are defined as the “training wheels” that serve as help, which slowly go away as a child becomes more independent. For example, a parent helping their kid tie their shoes, but as time goes on, that assistance goes away and the child is able to do it independently.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to solve problems, see relationships, and think abstractly.

Crystallized Intelligence

Represents an individual’s accumulated intelligence over time and the ability to use skills, knowledge, and experience.

Dementia

Some older adults develop this brain condition in which thinking, memory, and behavior begin to deteriorate (frontal lobe can deteriorate to some extent in all adults over 50)

Systematic Thinking

a methodical, organized, and deliberate cognitive approach to problem-solving, focusing on breaking complex issues into manageable parts and identifying patterns, structures, and relationships

Reversibility

The idea that actions can be reversed, returning to their original state. Understood by children in concrete operational stage.

Gender

Construction of roles for males and females

Sexual Orientation

Addresses one’s sexual attractions to male or female partners, or in some cases, both or neither.

Gender Identity

An individual’s internal belief about masculinity or femininity, which may or may not be the same as the biological sex at birth.

Gender Theory

Suggests that children develop a framework of knowledge about what it means to be male or female throughout interactions with the world

Gender Roles

behaviors, traits, and attitudes associated with males and females

Gender Typing

children become aware of the expected roles associated with gender

Social learning theory

Suggests that gender role behavior is developed through the observation of others and through rewards and punishments

Gender stability

a psychological developmental milestone, occurring around ages 3 to 4, where children realize that a person's gender remains consistent over time

Syntax

A set of rules, principles, and processes that govern sentence structure

Semantics

The meaning of words and sentences that rely on shared understanding. Users of a language have a common agreement on what words signify, which allows them to communicate ideas and information effectively.

Phoneme

The smallest, distinctive sound unit in a language. Without meaning (like ch or sh)

Morpheme

Small, distinctive sound with a semantic interpretation (meaning). Like latin roots [prefixes and suffixes], such as dis- or -ness

Grammar

The rules for combining words phrases and sentences are based on a shared understanding within the language community. Structures how we express relationships between different concepts and actions and organizes meaning in a systematic way.

Cooing stage

one of the earliest phases in language development, typically emerging around the age of 2 months and lasting until about 4 months. Infants vocalize and experiment with their vocal cords by producing soft, vowel like sounds. “oo”, “aa”, “ee”, “OIIAIAOUIIAI” are examples

Babbling stage

Begins around four months of age. Infant spontaneously vocalizes various sounds at first unrelated to the language spoken in the home . These are essentially nonsense sounds that have no meaning such as “ba-ba-ba” or “da-da-da”

One-word-stage

Language development that typically takes place between ages 1 and 2 during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Telegraphic Speech

A way to describe a child in the two word stage, since their speech is comprised of nouns and verbs in a telegraphic way.

Overgeneralization

the application of grammar rules in instances to which they do not apply

Ecological systems Theory

An explanation of how the social environment shapes human development. Emphasizes the interconnectedness between individuals and their surrounding contexts and highlights interconnections between various systems. 5 systems are there

Microsystem

The immediate environment in which an individual lives and interacts daily (direct contact such as family, peers, and school)

Mesosystem

Refers to connections between environments of the microsystem, such as being friends with the teacher’s child

Exosystem

External environments that indirectly influence behavior. Examples include parent workplaces, media, neighborhood conditions, or social policies in a certain area

Macrosystem

Encompasses the broader cultural, societal, and institutional contexts that shape individual’s lives. Cultural Norms, values, beliefs, laws, and economic systems

Chronosystem

Recognizes the importance of time and historical context in human development. Refers to the changes and transitions that occur over the course of an individuals life. Marriage, Divorce, or changes in economic circumstances.

Authoritarian Parenting

Dictorial parenting, they enforce rules without the input from their children, “My way, my way or the highway”

Permissive Parents

Rejecting-neglective parents. They are not very involved in their child’s lives as they pay more attention to their personal work, almost like they don’t like together. Because of this, the child may have little self-esteem and act like an adult prematurely since they have had to make more independent decisions with a lack of parental guidance.

Authoritative Parents

Responsive to input and needs of their children and set rules and expectations. Still not as rigid and demanding as authoritarian parents. (The perfect pareeeennnttttt)

Temperament

Another factor other than parental guidance that affects behavior. The innate, biologically-based individual differences in emotional reactivity, behavioral style, and self-regulation that appear early in life

Attachment

The emotional bond between an infant and caregiver

Separation Anxiety

Normal in babies where fear of separation from caregivers occurs.

Stranger Anxiety

the fear and uncertainty of an unknown person, especially in the absence of the caregiver.

Secure Attachment

a psychological attachment style characterized by a healthy, trusting, and consistent emotional bond between an individual and their primary caregiver. An infant might show a change in stress levels once the caregiver leaves, but trusts that they will come back

Insecure Attachment

a psychological attachment style characterized by a lack of trust, fear of abandonment, and difficulty forming secure, healthy emotional bonds. Comprised of avoidant, anxious, and disorganized attachments.

Avoidant attachment

Tend to avoid or downplay closeness and intimacy with their caregivers. May not seek comfort or support when needed

Anxious Attachment

more likely to be distressed by the caregiver’s departure and resentful when they return. May be due to inconsistency with caregiver’s behavior, learning to inconsistent child responses.

Disorganized Attachment

Happens when a child’s relationship with their caregiver is confusing and inconsistent. A toddler with this may cry when the caregiver leaves the room and run and hug the caregiver when they return, but then freeze or act strange when the parent tries to comfort them.

Parallel Play

When children play alongside each other without direct interaction or shared goals. For example, on playground, one child may be building a sandcastle, while another nearby child build their own castle, each absorbed in their task without direct collaboration.

Pretend play

a critical developmental process emerging around age two, peaking at ages 3–6, where children take an "as-if" stance to simulate realities

Adolescence Egocentrism

When this psychological concept is applied to teens, it is the perspective in which an adolescent believes that their parent or others could not possibly understand what they are going through

Imaginary Audience

In a person’s belief that they are under constant, intense observation and judgment by others, these “others” are termed as a group of individuals that teens may experience being observed by when they think they are the center of attention.

Personal Fable

Teens tend to create these. Stories of their lives that are idealized and special and that make them feel invincible. May cause them to engage in risky behaviors.

Emerging Adulthood

Evolved because teens are no longer jumping into adulthood and achieving complete independence from their parents as they leave their teenage years. Even though adolescence is is transition from childhood to adulthood, this term talk more deeply into ideas such as young adults leaving their 20’s and finishing college, moving out, getting insurance, all that stuff.

Social Clock

This cultural construct dictates a typical age for reaching specific milestones, such as completing education, entering the workforce, marrying, and starting a family.

Stages of Psychosocial development (Erikson)

Proposes that people must resolve psychosocial conflicts at each stage of the lifespan.

Trust and Mistrust

First stage of psychosocial development, beginning at birth and continuing through the first year of life. During this stage, the child learns to depend on parents or a caregiver for support, comfort, and responsiveness to needs.

Autonomy and Shame and Doubt

Second stage of psychosocial development. Lasts from age 1-3 defining the child’s toddler period. Children in this stage gain a sense of independence from their caregivers and begin to complete activities such as feeding and dressing themselves (autonomy). If parents continually interrupt children’s independent behaviors, toddlers may question whether they can act on their own (shame and doubt)

Initiative and Guilt

Third stage of psychosocial development, which lasts ages 3-6 to define a child’s preschool years. Children begin to take on even more independent activities. If a young child plans a tea party, she may engage in more self-initiated activities (initiative). Morality also begins to develop when children feel guilty for mistakes they have made (guilt)

Industry (competence) and inferiority

Fourth stage of erikson’s. Tracks children children from ages 6-12, defining their primary school years. During this stage, children begin to understand how others view them and how their performance compares to that of others. They begin to identify tasks they accel (industry) at and those that need practice (inferiority).

Identity and Role confusion

Fifth stage of Erikson’s. Associated with adolescence and represents individuals from ages 12-18. Teens (or preteens) begin to discover their own identity, see how it differs from others, and understand what makes them unique and special. Those who do not develop a clear sense of who they are may experience role confusion.

Intimacy and Isolation

Stage six in erikson’s model. It coincides with early adulthood, usually representing the 20s to 40s. According to Erikson, the young adult is looking for a potential life partner. Finding and developing emotionally close relationships. If not, they feel isolated and alone.

Generativity and stagnation

Stage Seven of Erikson’s theory. Represents middle adulthood. During this stage, individuals begin to reflect on their life’s work and determine whether they are providing something beneficial to younger generations. Individuals who feel that productivity are experiencing generativity, and if not, they are experiencing stagnation.

Integrity and Despair

The eighth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory. Represents late adulthood (late 60’s and older). Older adults reflect on overall life satisfaction. Posses integrity when they see their lives as something of contribution and despair if not.

Adverse Childhood Experiences

Encompass a range of traumatic events or stressors that occur during childhood, including abuse, neglect, household dysfunction, and other adverse circumstances.

Identity Diffusion

FIRST STAGE: A time in which adolescents have not yet undergone an identity crisis and have made no commitment about their own identity.

Identity Foreclosure

SECOND STAGE: Adolescents have a sense of core beliefs (political, moral, religious) but rather than considering these beliefs seriously and allowing them to shape their lives, they often simply adopt the views of their parents or society, especially about who they become.

Identity Moratorium

THIRD STAGE: Struggling with sense of identity within adolescents. They experience an identity crisis without commitment to the resolution.

Possible Selves

Various identities an individual can envision for themselves in the future, considering their hopes, fears, and the range of life paths available to them.

Identity achievement

FOURTH STAGE: A post crisis phase during which individuals have identifies and acknowledged who they are or want to be. High commitment and exploration.

Sexual Orientation

an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or people of multiple genders.

Racial/Ethnic Identity

an individual's sense of belonging to a specific group, encompassing the significance they place on shared cultural, social, and historical experiences. In shared heritage, ethic identity

Occupational Identity

an individual’s sense of self, purpose, and social status derived from their work, career, or vocation.

Familial Identity

an individual's sense of belonging, emotional connection, and adoption of roles, values, and traditions within their family unit.

Discontinuous Development

Stages like steps on a staircase. Moving through age-specific periods one at a time. Challenged by psychologists since it is observed that children may experience aspects of one stage while also exhibiting behaviors from another stage.

Continuous Development

Relatively even process without distinct stages. Like riding an escalator rather than going up a staircase. Gradually moving through stages

Nature and Nurture

environmental influences paired with biological makeup working to impact behavioral aspects of life.

Stability and change

Debate that centers whether the traits an infant displays are enduring or whether they change as the growing person interacts with other people and the culture in which they are reared.

Chronological development

Studies growth across a lifespan, with age-related milestones (The framework)

Lifespan Development

Studying how humans grow and change throughout their lifetime from conception to death

Cross Sectional Design

Comparing different groups based on variables such as age, socioeconomic status, and gender.

Social learning theory

explores the idea that we learn not just through direct experience, but also by observing the actions and outcomes of others behaviors, and that much of our knowledge is acquired by watching those around us.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning something by watches something model a behavior. For example, a toddler watches her older sister put her dish in the dishwasher, so she puts her dish in the dishwasher.

Modeling

the process of learning new behaviors, skills, or attitudes by observing and imitating others

Insight learning

the term for sudden realization that of how to solve a problem. For example, a chimp was given two sticks in his cage with bananas right outside his cage. after trying each stick unsuccessfully, the chimp fashioned the two sticks together to pull the bananas into his successfully.

Latent learning

When one learns something but not show the behavior right away. For example, rats that were trained to run a maze didn’t exhibit the behavior of solving a maze until it was reinforced.

Cognitive maps

a mental representation that allows an organism to acquire, store, and recall information in both real spatial world and in a metaphorical spatial environment.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which voluntary behavior is modified by the consequences the follow the behavior. It is strengthened when following by reinforcement or diminished when followed by punishment

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. For example, when you get praised for doing something good