Final Exam Review: European History from the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment

What is the definition of feudalism?

A decentralized political and military system based on land ownership and mutual obligations between lords and vassals.

Why did feudalism develop in Europe?

It developed to provide protection and stability against frequent foreign invasions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

How did manorialism make life self-sufficient?

The economic system centered on the lord's manor, which produced all the food, clothes, and tools needed for daily survival without external trade.

How did the Roman Catholic Church provide stability and unity during the Middle Ages?

It offered a shared faith, common laws, and a sense of cultural identity to Europeans during a time of political fragmentation.

What is an example of Church power in daily life and government?

The Church could enforce its political will over kings by threatening excommunication or interdict, which banned religious sacraments.

Who called the First Crusade and why?

Pope Urban II called the First Crusade to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim control and unite warring European Christian knights.

What was a social effect of the Black Death?

The massive loss of life severely weakened the social hierarchy and broke down traditional community structures.

What was a political effect of the Black Death?

The feudal system crumbled as the severe labor shortage allowed surviving peasants to demand greater freedom from lords.

What was an economic effect of the Black Death?

Wages for working peasants drastically increased due to the scarcity of labor, while trade temporarily collapsed.

What is Humanism?

An intellectual movement that focused on human potential, achievements, and the study of worldly, secular subjects rather than purely religious ones.

How did Humanism change art and literature?

Writers began creating works in local vernacular languages, while artists focused on realistic human anatomy and individual emotion.

What is a major difference between Medieval and Renaissance art?

Medieval art was flat, symbolic, and strictly religious, while Renaissance art used perspective, realism, and secular themes.

What was the main idea of Martin Luther's 95 Theses?

He argued that salvation is achieved by faith alone and heavily criticized the Catholic Church's practice of selling indulgences.

What was a major effect of the Protestant Reformation?

It permanently shattered the religious unity of Western Europe and weakened the absolute power of the Catholic Church.

What was the impact of the printing press on spreading ideas?

It allowed books like the Bible to be mass-produced cheaply, rapidly spreading literacy and revolutionary religious ideas across Europe.

What was Nicolaus Copernicus's major achievement and impact?

He developed the heliocentric theory that the planets revolve around the sun, which fundamentally challenged the Church's geocentric view.

What was Galileo Galilei's major achievement and impact?

He used an improved telescope to prove the heliocentric theory, demonstrating that the heavens were changing rather than perfect.

What was Isaac Newton's major achievement and impact?

He formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, showing that natural laws govern both earth and space.

What was William Harvey's major achievement and impact?

He discovered that the heart acts as a pump to circulate blood throughout the entire human body.

What was the achievement of Francis Bacon and René Descartes?

They developed the Scientific Method by emphasizing empiricism, logical observation, and systematic experimentation.

How did the Scientific Method challenge old ways of thinking?

It taught people to rely on evidence and human reason rather than accepting traditional religious dogmas and ancient authority blindly.

What is the definition of Absolutism?

A political system where a monarch holds total power over the government and the lives of their people, often claiming a divine right to rule.

How did Louis XIV exemplify Absolutism?

He controlled the French nobility by forcing them to live at his luxurious Palace of Versailles and famously declared, "I am the state."

How did Philip II exemplify Absolutism?

He centralized all political power in Spain and used the Inquisition to enforce strict Catholic conformity across his global empire.

What was John Locke’s main Enlightenment idea?

He believed all people possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and can overthrow a government that fails to protect them.

What was Montesquieu’s main Enlightenment idea?

He argued that government power should be divided into separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.

What was Rousseau’s main Enlightenment idea?

He proposed the concept of the social contract, meaning a government's authority comes from the general will and consent of the governed.

What was Adam Smith’s main Enlightenment idea?

He advocated for laissez-faire capitalism, arguing that a free market guided by an "invisible hand" is best for the economy.

What was Mary Wollstonecraft’s main Enlightenment idea?

He argued that women deserve the same educational and political rights as men because they possess equal human reason.

What was Cesare Beccaria’s main Enlightenment idea?

He argued that the justice system should focus on deterrence rather than revenge, speaking out against torture and cruel punishments.

What was Thomas Hobbes’s main Enlightenment idea?

He believed humans are naturally selfish and violent, requiring a powerful, absolute monarch to maintain social order and security.

What was the impact of Enlightenment ideas on government and individual rights?

They inspired democratic revolutions around the world and formed the foundational basis for modern constitutional governments and human rights documents.

What is the definition of the Age of Conquest?

A period when European powers invaded, colonized, and claimed political and economic control over the Americas.

What was the Encomienda System?

A Spanish colonial labor system that granted settlers the right to force Indigenous populations into labor in exchange for Christianizing them.

What was the impact of the Encomienda System?

It caused catastrophic population declines among Native Americans due to brutal overwork, while generating immense wealth for Spain.

What was Christopher Columbus’s role and view on the conquest of Native Americans?

He initiated permanent European contact with the Americas and viewed the Indigenous people as inferior subjects to be exploited for wealth.

What was Bartolomé de Las Casas’s viewpoint regarding Indigenous peoples?

He vehemently protested Spanish atrocities and argued that Native Americans were human beings who deserved protection and rights.

What is the definition of the Columbian Exchange?

The massive global transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, and deadly diseases between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

What are examples of items traded in the Columbian Exchange?

Potatoes and corn went to Europe, while horses, sugar, and smallpox were brought over to the Americas.

What was the impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa?

It devastated African societies by causing massive depopulation, tearing apart families, and fueling devastating tribal warfare.

What was the impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on the Americas?

It provided the forced labor that built wealthy plantation economies while deeply embedding systemic racial hierarchies into colonial societies.