Unit 4: Personality & Social Psychology

norms

a society's understood rules for accepted and expected behaviour. norms prescribe "proper" behaviour in individual and social situations

conformity

adjusting our behaviour or thinking to coincide with a group standard

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from a person's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

obedience

complying with an order or a command

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

culture

the enduring behaviours, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

tight culture

a place with clearly defined and reliabily imposed norms

loose culture

a place with flexible and informal norms

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behaviour

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behaviour by crediting either the situation (a situational attribution) or the person's stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behaviour, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of the personal disposition

actor-observer bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behaviour to external causes, but for observers to attribute others' behaviour to internal causes. contributes to the fundamental attribution error

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. prejudice generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behaviour toward a group or its members

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

ingroup

"us" - people with whom we share a common identity

outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

ingroup bias

the tendency to favour our own group

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races (aka cross-race effect or own-race bias)

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behaviour is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing help

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

social trap

a situation in which two parties, by pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behaviour

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

aggression

any physical or verbal behaviour intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration - the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression

social script

a culturally modelled guide for how to act in various situations

mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

compassionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behaviour

instinct

a complex behaviour that is rigidly patterened throughout a species and is unlearned

physiological need

a basic bodily requirement

drive-reduction theory

the idea that physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behaviour

Yerkes-Dodson law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases; performance improves with moderate arousal

affiliation need

the need to build and maintain relationships and to feel part of a group

self-determination theory

the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

intrinstic motivation

the desire to perform a behaviour effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

the desire to perform a behaviour to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. when its level is low, we feel hunger.

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is may be set. when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy output

obesity

defined as a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving 1. physiological arousal 2. expressive behaviours, and most importantly, 3. conscious experience resulting from one's interpretations

polygraph

a machine used in attempts to detect lies; measures emotion-linked changes in perspiration, heart rate, and breathing

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

behaviour feedback effect

the tendency of behaviour to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thining, feeling, and acting

psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. according to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. the id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

ego

the partly conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards or judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

terror-management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioural responses to reminders of their impending death

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics and explore the preconscious and unconscious mind

Rorschach inkblot test

a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots

humanistic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

trait

a characteristic pattern of behaviour or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviours; used to assess selected personality traits.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups

Big Five Factors

five traits — openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism — that describe personality (five-factor model)

social-cognitive perspective

a view of behaviour as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context

behavioural approach

focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behaviour, internal cognition, and environment

self

in modern psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

self-esteem

our feelings of high or low self-worth

self-efficacy

our sense of competence and effectiveness