Sociology- The media

Globalization

Globalisation is the increasing interdependence of societies worldwide, marked by the spread of shared culture, consumer goods, and economic interests.

• Political globalisation is driven by the growth of international organisations.

• Cultural globalisation occurs as information and media spread beyond local origins.

• Economic globalisation reflects the idea that all economies are interconnected; as Heywood argues, it involves a shift from separate national economies to a global system with internationalised production and rapid capital flows.

Critics like Sklair highlight negatives, including the dominance of American culture, which can marginalise local cultures, weaken nation states, and contribute to civic disengagement.

Neophilliac perspective

New media is beneficial because:

• Increased consumer choice

• An e-commerce revolution

• Revitalising democracy

• Platforms for social movements

Disney plus and Netflix are good examples

Cultural pessimist perspective

• Not so new media

• Domination by media conglomerates

• Commercialisation

• Reinforcing elite power

• Decline in the quality of popular culture

• Lack of regulation

New media

Boyle argues new media is not truly “new” (it builds on old media), interactivity is overstated, and the main difference is speed—so neophile claims are exaggerated.

Dutton & Blank highlight a digital divide, with 91% of highly educated people using the internet vs 34% of those with only formal education.

Commercialism and reinforcing elite power

Cornford & Robbins are sceptical that new media empowers people, arguing e-commerce (shopping, banking, bill payments, etc.) enables consumer surveillance (e.g. cookies), allowing companies to target users and promote materialism—reinforcing capitalist control.

They also note government interest in regulating or shutting down websites.

Cultural imperialism, Pop culture, High culture and mass culture

Cultural imperialism- when one or more cultures dominate the cultural output of other regions. Our global and economic system is dominated by transnational companies. 9/10 top media companies are in the US. 

Popular culture- Mass produced, commercialized products aimed at everybody. They don't challenge dominant cultural ideas.

High culture- Something special to be treated differently, mainly aimed at the upper class. 

Mass culture- New media has led to a merge of pop culture and high culture. The new media makes high culture available to everyone. High culture products are now pop culture products.

Pluralist and postmodernist views on mass culture.

Tomlinson-reception theory. 

Mass culture is a positive step as it focuses on how audiences use the media. Audiences aren't passive but respond actively. 

The media has become more diverse like society. All cultures are accessible to everyone. 

Flew says the evolution of new media has a role to play in globalised pop culture. Globalisation undermines national and local cultures. TV programmes are now shared all around the world.

Audience

Audiences are an individual or group of people who read or consume any media text. 

Without audiences there would be no media or profit. 

The mass media is becoming more competitive than ever to attract more audiences and become more profitable.

Audiences are fragmented (the division of audiences into smaller groups due to the variety of media outlets).

The media gets its money through advertising.

Mass vs niche audiences

Mass audience- Those who consume mainstream or popular texts such as soaps or sitcoms. Media and communication that target a large group of people. 

Niche audience- much smaller but very influential. A small group of people which a unique interest.

Psychographic profile

A (Lawyers, Doctors )

B (Teachers, Middle management )

C1 (Nurses, White collar workers)

C2 (Electricians and Plumbers)

D (Manual workers like Post sorters)

E (Students, Unemployed)

Hypodermic syringe model

It suggests audiences are passive and messages are “injected” directly into them, causing a direct link between media (e.g. violence) and real-life behaviour; audiences are seen as powerless, and the theory is often used to explain moral panics (the intensity of feeling expressed in a population about an issue that appears to threaten the social order. 

Dworkin suggested men viewing porn are more likely to abuse women. 

Other researchers like Denmark say porn led to improved sex lives and sex knowledge.

Imitation and copycat violence

Bandura showed his film to groups of small children. They then changed their behaviour in response to what was seen on TV. 

This concluded that violent media could lead to imitation or copycat violence. 

McCabe and Martin said that imitation was a likely outcome of media violence because it’s often portrayed as being heroic. 

These acts are then carried out by young people- ‘Dishinihition effect.

Desensitisation and censorship

Elizabeth Newson said as a result of the James Bulger case, exposure of violent killings create a drip effect on young people. This leads to the behaviour being sensitized. 

Newsons research has had a big effect on censorship

E.g. In 2008, OFCOM survey said 2/3rds of their sample of young people between 12-15 said violent computer games affected their behaviour.

Cultivation theory

The more time people spend living in the television world, the more likely they are to believe the social reality portrayed by television. This process is “Cultivated” because it inly occurs over a long period of time. 

It sees the audience as passive.

This model is a Marxist model which suggests the media is a powerful tool in transmitting capitalist ideas, norms values etc. 

Eventually, those producing the media promote a particular interpretation of events (the preferred reading). Repetition of this is what causes it to become part of our culture. 

George Orwell said the more ideology is dripped into society by the media, the more people accept it.

Uses and gratifications theory

Blumer and McQuail see the media audiences as active- they need to meet biological, psychological or social needs. 

Blumer, McQuail and Brown outlined 4 purposes:

• Diversion (escape from everyday problems) e.g. Watson said we use the media to escape from routines.

• Personal relationships (companionship)

• Personal identity (finding yourself)

• Surveillance (find out information)

Blumner and Katz also highlighter 

• Familiarity (having to know about certain texts to feel part of a community)

Criticisms of Uses and Gratifications theory

Audiences are seen as asocial- the emphasis os on personality, rather than cultural and social context. 

Fiske ignores the power of the media message. Stories are usually encoded with preferred reading. 

This approach concentrates on small pieces of text.

Reception theory

People are not passive. The reader can interpret meanings based on their individual cultural background and life experiences. 

The Two-Step Flow Model (Lazarsfeld & Katz) argues media messages are interpreted by opinion leaders before reaching others.

Morley’s study shows audiences are active, producing dominant (accept), negotiated (partly accept), or oppositional (reject) readings of media texts.

The selective filter model

Klapper holds that media messages pass through 3 filters before they have an effect. 

The audience doesn't just passively accept everything.  The 3 filters are:

• Selective exposure- different groups are exposed to different media content which will influence the effect the media can have on them. Audiences actively choose what to watch. 

• Selective perception- Audiences may reject some of the content they are exposed to if it doesn't fit in with their view of the world. Festinger argued that people actively seek out media contents which affirms their views of the world. 

• Selective retention- content has to stick for it to have an effect.

Control of the media and its content

Manipulative approach- Owners directly control and manipulate content to protect their profits and spread dominant ideology. This sees audiences as passive. 

Hegemonic approach- Media owners have powerful influence but they rarely have day to day control of the content. This is in the hands of editors and journalists. The GMG states most journalists are white so share the same views as the dominant class. They explore the agenda setting (news is excluded from reporting).

Pluralist approach- Media content isn't driven by dominant ideology or political interest of owners but instead fight for profit through high circulation and audience figures. Audiences can pick whatever interpretation suits them.

Trends in ownership and control

Recent trends in media ownership and control suggest the number of companies controlling global mass media has shrunk. 

Bagdikian notes that in 1983, 50 corporations controlled the majority of news whilst by 2004, media ownership was concentrated in 7 corporations. 

Curran notes the ownership of British newspapers has always been concentrated in the hands of few powerful ‘press barons’. The content is mainly controlled by one company whilst access to satellite, cable and digital television is controlled by 2 companies- News corp and virgin media.

Diversification, synergy and technological convergence.

Some media corporations have diversified into other fields. 

Media companies use diverse interests to package or synergise their products. A company uses global interests to market one of its own films. 

Technological convergence is putting several technologies into one media product, often to give customers access to a greater range of services. 

Doyle suggests that examination of ownership and control patterns is important for 2 reasons:

• All points of view need to be heard if society is to be truly demographic. 

• Abuses of power and influence by elites need to be monitored by free media. 

Pluralist vs marxist theory of media ownership

Pluralist:

Concentration of media ownership is a product of economic rationality rather than political moves. 

Globalisation results from the need to find new audiences rather than from cultural imperialism. 

The power of media owners is restricted by state / government controls. 

Marxist:

Argue the economic system of Britain is characterized by great inequalities in wealth and income. Agenda setting  = cultural hegemony.

Miliband argues the role of media is to shape how we think about the world 

Curran's detailed systematic examination of the social history of the British press suggests the evidence for owner interference is strong.

Social construction theory

The news is socially constructed because:

• The mass media cannot and does not report everything that happens.

• The news isn’t waiting to be collected

• Many events happen in reality which don't get reported in the news.

• The content and format of the news is a result of many decisions made by several media professionals and therefore will reflect the biases of those who are involved. 

Journalists, Marxists and Pluralists

Journalists say:

• There are so many available sources of news and it has to be accurate and genuine.

• There's no bias. 

Pluralists say:

• The Libel laws protect people from being defamed. 

• There is far more choice now so media companies have have evolved to reflect the beliefs of their customers. evolved to reflect the beliefs of their customers. 

Marxists say:

• The form and content of the news is designed by the ruling class to promote their values. 

• Agenda setters and gate keepers are crucial.

News influences

Ownership and government influence can shape news agendas.

Profit and advertising drive reliance on agencies; globalisation increases competition and demand for fast, concise news.

Organisational pressures (24-hour news) speed up reporting.

Agenda setting shapes public focus.

Gatekeeping controls which stories are reported or excluded.

The construction of reality in the news

McQuail argues news is socially manufactured because gatekeepers make choices on what information they give to certain events. It is dependent on 3 influences:

• The news values held by media organisations

• Ownership, ideology and bias

• Organisational or bureaucratic constraints

Factors that increase net worthiness

• Extraordinariness

• Threshold (the bigger the event)

• Unambiguity (events which are easy to grasp)

• Reference to elite persons

• Personalisation (associated with particular celebrities)

• Negativity (bad news is more exciting)

Moral panics

The process is:

• An activity gains media attention

• Agencies of control respond

• Deviance becomes

• Exaggeration, symbolisation, prediction

• Problem is redefined

People can be influenced by advertising, copycat violence, political views or giving to charity.

Stan Cohen and McRobbie- Moral panics

Cohen used the term ‘folk devil’ to refer to groups whose behaviour is exaggerated into seeming deviant. 

Cohen noted how the media used symbolic shorthand’s which led to exaggeration then to prediction. 

McRobbie argued that:

The frequency of moral panics has increased. The context of moral panics creates folk devils,they are reflexive, difficult to start and people are wary of them as they might rebound. 

Theories of crime

Marxist- it is not surprising that moral panics centre around deviant groups. They highlight the way the media portrays criminals as working class. Althusser describes the media as an ideological state apparatus. 

Interpretivist- view the media as supporting specific arguments with selective evidence and data. 

Functionalist and pluralist- the media is a window on the world and reflects a true picture of crime. 

Feminist theory- the media downplays the extent of women victims in crime. 

Postmodernist- sees the media as a crucial player in our perception of crime. Crime is expressed as a spectacle- the media presents crime with a mix of entertainment and sensationalism.

Ethnic representation

Hall highlights how black and Asian people are scapegoated as being cheats, deviant and the problems of society. This is supported by people like Hall et al and Van Dijk. 

• As deviant lawbreakers

Hargrave showed black people were 2x as likely to be portrayed as criminals on TV.

• As posing a threat

• As causing social problems

• As having little talents 

• As have problems internationally 

The Glasgow media group highlighted that disasters and terrorism are the main stories presented.

Media representation of ethnic minorities

Representations are often negative and stereotypical, with ethnic minorities treated as a homogeneous group.

Stuart Hall argues media deliberately promotes negative images, encouraging audience complicity.

There is also underrepresentation and tokenism, portrayals of dependence (e.g. focus on war and famine), and framing as “abnormal” (e.g. debates around the hijab). 

Ameli et al noted the media discussion around the issue of wearing a hijab is problematic.

Van Dijk

Ethnic minorities as criminals-Wayne et al found nearly 50% of stories concerning young black people dealt with them committing a crime. 

Minority groups as a threat- Poole argued that Islam has always been demonised and distorted by the western media. Representations of Islam have always been negative - In 2007, 98% of newspaper articles were negative. 

Minority groups as unimportant- Shah claims that the BBC engage in tokenism where black and Asian actors are cast as presenters or in roles just to give the appearance of ethnic equality.

Explanations for stereotypes

Pluralists argue that stereotypes in the media exist because corporations control what people read. 

Neo marxists GMG highlight the media seek to do this as its owned by the upper class and seeks to divide the public. 

Abercrombie suggests these changes of ethnic representation are now evident in soaps like Eastenders where 43% were watching.

Female representation

Beberick says there is a clear relationship between the extension of the media's reach and eating disorders, low self esteem etc. Sexism exists where beauty ideals and practices are rigidly consumed and followed.

Wolf points out that the media present a particular physical image as the normal even though this is unattainable. 

Y.Yamamiya et al found just 5 minutes of exposure of thin and beautiful images of women leads to viewers feeling more negative about their body. 

Angela McRobbie analysed teen magazines and young women's engagements in the media. It showed that the teenage girl's aim was to get a boy and keep him.

Provenzo found that video games have very stereotyped representations of males and females. 

Newbold's research into TV sport presentation shows what little coverage of women's sport there is and sexualises, devalues and trivializes their accomplishments.

Wolf and Tebbel

• The WAG (woman / girlfriend)

• Sex object (slim and sexually active)

• Supermum (happy homemaker or part time worker)

• Angel 

• Ball breaker (strong and independent)

• The Victim 

35% of 6-12 year old girls were on a diet.

Theories of gender stereotypes

Postmodernism- Gauntlett focuses on the relationship between mass media and identity. The mass media challenge traditional definitions of gender. The media provides us with a greater diversity of choices. 

Liberal feminists- believe media representations lag behind the reality of social and economic conditions. But representation of women have changed significantly, but have slowed down in recent years.

Marxist and socialist feminism- The roots of the stereotypical images of men and women in the media are economic. The alternative image of women encouraged by feminists does not fit easily into this type of media (stereotypes) and are causing women to be ignored. 

Radical feminism- Traditional hegemonic images of femininity are deliberately transmitted by a male dominated media to keep women oppressed in narrow roles. This creates a false consciousness. 

Laura Mulvey's ‘male gaze’ theory

The male gaze denies women their own autonomy and identity, relating them to objects. This theory suggests women can only watch a film from a secondary perspective as onlookers defined by the male perspective. 

Female characters often have no importance and are only there as a foil to the dominant male. 

The male gaze reflects and contributes to the hegemonic ideologies in society.

The role of female characters have 2 functions

• As an erotic object for characters within the narrative to view. 

• As an erotic object for spectators to view.

Media representation of reality

The mass media were once thought of as holding up a mirror to and reflecting a wider social reality to what you would see. 

Postmodernists believe that now we are copying copies of reality- a hyper reality, what wee see on TV we see as real and copy it within our lives. 

Lads mags

New studies show that lads mags normalise sexist humour and refute the idea that the men perceive them as ironic. 

New findings show links between ambivalent sexism and lads mags. 

Another study with 423 men aged 18 to 30 aimed to identify the correlation between sexism and lads mag consumption. It revealed that if a man displays ambivalent sexism he is more likely to buy lads mags

Class representation- monarchy and wealth

Monarchy- Narin notes that the monarchy has converted much of the modern mass media and that it was rare to see any criticism. After WW2, the monarchy reinvented themselves as The Royal Family, portraying themselves as an ordinary family. Royal populism is evident through ravenous tabloid media.

Wealth- Reiner and Young have recently argued that the UK is a meritocratic society. The rejection of meta-narratives is observed and individuals challenge media sources. Neo Marxists argue that mass media representations of social class celebrate hierarchy and wealth. 

Newman says the media focus’ very positively on the concerns of the wealthy and the privileges, it over focuses’ on things like luxury cars etc.

Class representation- middle class, working class and underclass

Middle class- Some sociologists argue the middle class are overrepresented in the media (middle class concerns). A substantial percent of newspapers focus on the consumption of the middle classes (capitalist culture for Marxists). The content of newspapers believe the middle classes are anxious about the decline in moral standards in society (recession of moral standards) Most of the creative personnel are middle class (bias from middle class management).

The working class- Newman argues working class people are represented as pitying or unflattering. Studies from GUMG says the media portrays unreasonable workers as making trouble for reasonable employers.

Butsch argued that working class men are more likely to be portrayed as flawed individuals. However these flaws are highlighted by making working class women seem more intelligent (feminism?)

Underclass- Newman says when poverty stricken and underclass are represented, it is in statistical form rather than personal identities. Lawler notes about the term chav and how the media utilises this offensive language to show what they think of a peasant underclass. McKendrick et al studied a week's output of mainstream media in 2007 and concluded that coverage of poverty is marginal in British media.

Media representation of age

Childhood- Children are usually victims of crime, cute, devils, brilliant etc. 

Heintz- Knowles study of children on TV found that they are motivated by peer relations, sports and romance, they are rarely shown as coping with social issues. 

Chandler says pester power creates anxiety amongst parents in debt. 

Youth- Young people are largely represented in terms of lifestyle and identity, They are more likely to be represented as a problem and youth subcultures have been the focus of media led moral panics. Wayne et al confirms the negative portrayal of youth in the UK. They looked at 2130 news items and found 82% focused on youth crime, 

Charlotte Kelly said there are 3 representations: Dangerous, in need of protection and immature.

Elderly- Devalued in the media. Newman noted that the upper class and middle class elderly are portrayed in TV as occupying high status roles. 

They are often grumpy, mentally challenged, dependent, burdens etc

Lee et al noted that the representation of the elderly advertisement is low but the majority of representation focus on golden ages rather than a wide range of experiences.

Theories on age representation

Feminists argue it is acceptable for men to be attractive but women have to conform to beauty ideals. 

Pluralists say no one group has power and as Marxists would say, it is distributed evenly to maintain social equality.

Media representation of disability

A disability is a physical or mental impairment which has a long term effect on a person.

Barnes said they were seen as pathetic, objects of curiosity, object of violence, sinister, cripple and object of ridicule.

Cumberbatch performed content analysis of the most popular 2013-2014 programmes, disability representation was at 2.5% compared to 1 in 5 people in the real world