Week 7 Leadership and Interpersonal Skills

Master: What are the key theories, models and frameworks in Cross-Cultural Leadership?

Culture and diversity; ethnocentrism; Hall, Trompenaars and Hofstede’s cultural dimensions; GLOBE Study; GLOBE’s nine cultural dimensions; cultural clusters; Culturally Endorsed Leadership Theory (CLT); universal leadership attributes; globalisation; convergence and divergence theory; universalism vs relativism; corporate/cultural diplomat; Adler and Bartholomew’s five cross-cultural competencies; multicultural teams; cultural intelligence (CQ); boundary spanner, bridge maker and blender roles; expatriation and repatriation; critique of cross-cultural leadership research.

What is culture and why does it matter for leadership?

Culture is the learned beliefs, values, rules, norms, symbols and traditions shared by a group. It shapes communication, engagement, leadership expectations and how people interpret behaviour, so leaders must understand culture to work effectively in diverse organisations.

What are the key characteristics of culture, multiculturalism and diversity?

Culture is learned, shared, stable but adaptable, and shapes behaviour like invisible programming. Multiculturalism means multiple cultures interacting or being considered, while diversity means the presence of difference within a group or organisation.

What is ethnocentrism and how can leaders reduce it?

Ethnocentrism means judging other cultures using your own cultural standards. It can cause bias, misunderstanding, prejudice and conflict, so leaders need self-awareness, cultural humility and the ability to question their own assumptions.

What did Hall, Trompenaars and Hofstede contribute to cultural research?

Hall examined individualism and collectivism; Trompenaars classified culture through egalitarian–hierarchical and person–task dimensions; Hofstede identified power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation.

What is the GLOBE Study and why is it important?

GLOBE examined leadership perceptions across 17,000 managers, 950 organisations and 62 cultures. It shows that societies have norms, values and traditions that shape organisations and leadership expectations.

What are GLOBE’s nine cultural dimensions?

The nine dimensions are uncertainty avoidance, power distance, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, performance orientation and humane orientation.

How do uncertainty avoidance and power distance shape leadership expectations?

High uncertainty avoidance cultures expect structure and predictability, while low uncertainty avoidance cultures tolerate flexibility. High power distance cultures expect hierarchy and authority, while low power distance cultures prefer participative leadership.

How do collectivism, gender egalitarianism and assertiveness shape leadership?

Institutional collectivism focuses on organisational group goals, while in-group collectivism stresses loyalty to family or close groups. Gender egalitarianism affects expectations of inclusion, while assertiveness shapes whether leaders are expected to be direct or diplomatic.

How do future orientation, performance orientation and humane orientation shape leadership?

Future orientation values planning and long-term success; performance orientation values achievement and excellence; humane orientation values fairness, generosity and care. These shape whether leadership is strategic, results-driven or relationship-focused.

What are GLOBE cultural clusters and what do they show?

Cultural clusters group countries with similar patterns to simplify global comparison. Anglo cultures are often results-driven, Confucian Asia stresses collective success, Nordic Europe values equality, Latin America values loyalty, Middle East emphasises hierarchy, and Sub-Saharan Africa stresses community.

What are the strengths and limitations of the GLOBE Study?

GLOBE uses empirical data, standardised methods and links culture to leadership perceptions. However, it measures perceptions rather than actual effectiveness, focuses mainly on corporate contexts, and can oversimplify cultures into broad clusters.

What are the six Culturally Endorsed Leadership Theory behaviours?

CLT identifies charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, participative, humane-oriented, autonomous and self-protective leadership. These show that leadership styles are culturally interpreted and may not mean the same thing everywhere.

What do the six CLT leadership behaviours mean?

Charismatic/value-based inspires through vision and values; team-oriented builds unity; participative shares decision-making; humane is supportive; autonomous values independence; self-protective focuses on status, safety, security and face-saving.

What leadership attributes are universally desirable or undesirable?

Desirable attributes include trustworthiness, honesty, motivation, communication, decisiveness and team building. Undesirable attributes include being dictatorial, egocentric, non-cooperative, ruthless, irritable or asocial.

What is globalisation and why does it matter for leadership?

Globalisation is the accelerated movement of ideas, people, goods, services and money, compressing time and space. It creates global supply chains, rapid communication and interdependence, so leaders must operate across cultures and systems.

What are the origins and drivers of globalisation?

Globalisation expanded through technology, economics, migration, cultural exchange and global institutions. After World War II, the UN, IMF and World Bank helped create a rules-based global order to encourage cooperation and economic interdependence.

How did US dominance shape global leadership ideas?

After World War II, the US had major industrial and economic power, so American corporations and management ideas spread globally. This exported values such as individualism, competition, performance focus, hard work and authority.

What is convergence theory in cross-cultural leadership?

Convergence theory argues that globalisation pushes organisations towards standardised leadership and HR practices, often influenced by US models. This can spread “best practice” but also “worst practice,” such as harsh layoffs or damaging work cultures.

What is universalism vs relativism in leadership?

Universalism argues that good leadership principles should apply everywhere, supporting global consistency. Relativism argues leadership must be understood within cultural, historical and social context because the same behaviour can mean different things across cultures.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of universalism and relativism?

Universalism creates consistency, simpler training and strong global identity, but can impose one culture and ignore context. Relativism is culturally sensitive and improves trust, but can create inconsistency, stereotyping and difficulty defining good leadership.

What is the hybrid approach to global leadership?

A hybrid approach standardises core values, mission and brand identity while adapting communication, HR practices and leadership behaviour locally. It recognises global integration while respecting cultural difference.

Why do cultural differences persist despite globalisation?

Globalisation increases interaction but does not erase culture. Values are embedded over generations, so people do not abandon cultural identity when organisations globalise; instead, cultures interact, coexist and influence leadership.

What is a corporate or cultural diplomat?

A corporate or cultural diplomat is a leader who navigates multiple cultures, adapts behaviour and builds global relationships. This requires cultural intelligence, flexibility, empathy, communication skill, humility and deep self-awareness.

Why are multicultural teams difficult to lead and how can they become effective?

They face communication differences, conflicting leadership expectations, different conflict styles and different meanings of behaviour. They become effective through structure, clarity, shared goals, trust, participation and strong leadership that manages diversity actively.

What are Adler and Bartholomew’s five cross-cultural leadership competencies?

Leaders must understand global business, political and cultural environments; learn other cultural perspectives, trends and technologies; work across cultures simultaneously; adapt communication and behaviour; and relate from equality rather than superiority.

What are the roles of an international leader and what is cultural intelligence?

International leaders act as boundary spanners, bridge makers and blenders by connecting cultures, resolving misunderstandings and creating shared identity. Cultural intelligence is the ability to understand, interpret and adapt across cultures through knowledge, behavioural flexibility, openness and empathy.

What are expatriation and repatriation in global leadership?

Expatriates work outside their home country to transfer knowledge, maintain standards and develop local staff. Repatriation is the return process and can involve reverse culture shock, feeling undervalued, career disruption and high turnover.

What are the main critiques of cross-cultural leadership research and what determines effectiveness?

Critiques include limited evidence for universal styles, oversimplified categories, confusion between style and behaviour, assumptions that leaders can adapt, and ignoring variation within countries. Effectiveness depends on cultural awareness, adaptability, communication and trust-building.