Motor Control Exam 4

practice distribution problem situation

you have a specific amount of time to practice (or for rehab) for a “test”

length and frequency of the practice sessions and length of rest intervals between trials during each practice session

(the practice condition question) what is the best way to schedule the available time in terms of:

practice distribution

the answers to the practice condition questions are found in research related to…

overlearning

a continuation of practice once you have met a set of criterion; typically positive for motor skills

overlearning causing an increase in performance

procedural skills (series of skills); rifle assembly study

rifle assembly study

repeatedly assembling parts of a rifle led to better performance

overlearning causing a decrease in performance (diminishing return)

very easy skills (boredom, habituation); transfer test (practice variability)

habituation

beginning to tune things out

does not ensure (deliberate practice)

increasing the amount of practice… an increase in performance; more is not always better

massed practice

longer and fewer sessions; no to very short between-trial rest intervals

distributed practice

more and shorter sessions; longer between-trial rest intervals

distributed schedules

conclusion from research findings about which length and frequency of practice sessions is better

why is distributed practice better?

reduce the effects of fatigue; massed practice decreases cognitive effort; provides the needed time for memories to consolidate

best schedule depends on the type of skill

how does the best practice distribution schedule change when it is applied to learning

continuous motor skills

distributed schedules are most effective (motor skill); distributed schedules typically show better performance during practice when compared to mass

discrete motor skills

massed schedules better than distributed (motor skill); MORE massed

too long

practice sessions can be… (length - implications for scheduling practice sessions)

more; fewer

schedule… rather than… sessions, if the available amount of time for practice permits (implications for scheduling practice sessions)

false savings

time saved in terms of number of days of practice can be a… (implications for scheduling practice sessions)

may not

the length and frequency of sessions desired by participants… represent the best schedule (implications for scheduling practice sessions)

short

keep rest intervals… between trials for skills that require short performance time (simple skills) (implications for scheduling practice sessions)

practice condition problem

situation: you want a person to learn a new skill; will the person learn the skill better if they initially practice the skill as a whole or in parts (before practicing skill as a whole)

whole practice

practice strategy that involves practicing a skill as a whole (in its entirety)

part practice

practice strategy that involves practicing parts of the skill

complexity

number of parts or components and the degree of info-processing that characterize a skill; low = one and high = many

organization

the relationships among the components of a skill; low = independent and high = interdependent

whole or part practice

the organization and complexity characteristics of a skill could provide the basis for a decision to use either…

continuum

complexity and organization can be viewed as a…

whole practice strategy should be used

skills with low complexity and/or high in organization (few parts and/or high interdependency); ex: buttoning a shirt or putting a golf ball

part practice strategy should be used

skills with high complexity and/or low in organization (many parts and/or high independency); ex: reaching, grasping, or drinking from a cup, or gymnastics routine

spatial-temporal coordination

whole practice strategy provides an opportunity to perform all the… requirements of the skill

specific component or feature

part practice strategy provides an opportunity to focus attention to a… of the skill

complexity and organization

to determine… of a skill you must first analyze the skill; focus on the component parts; the extent to which the spatial-temporal characteristics of those parts are interdependent

complex

most ADLs are…; meaning your focus should mostly be directed towards determining the level of organization

continuous

high complexity, high organization

serial

high complexity, high organization (but not as high as continuous)

discrete

low complexity, high organization

fractionalization, segmentation, simplification

three types of part practice

fractionalization

skill components that are normally performed together are partitioned and practiced independently (typically related to skills that require asymmetric bimanual coordination)

3 step practice sequence of fractionalization

1. practice hand/leg with more difficult part

2. practice other hand/leg

3. practice with both hands/legs simultaneously

segmentation (also known as progressive part method)

separating the skill into parts and then practicing the parts so that after one part is practiced, it is then practiced with the next part, until whole skill is practiced

procedure of segmentation practice

1. practice first component

2. practice second component

3. practice both components together

4. repeat until every component is practiced together

simplification

reduce skill difficulty by practicing an easier variation of the skill before practicing the skill itself

methods of implementing simplification

reduce object difficulty (not all “easier” objects yield intended benefits, though → ex: bean bags vs. scarves while learning to juggle); reduce attention demands (without changing action goal → ex: using ski poles to train for slalom); reduce speed demands (for speed-accuracy skills → ex: learning a waltz in dance)

an attention approach to involving part practice in whole practice

it is possible to focus on parts while still practicing the whole skill; largely supported by research → Kahneman’s “momentary intentions” allocation strategy; ex: direct attention focus to a specific part of the skill while performing the whole

mental practice (MP)

cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt physical movements

mental imagery (MI)

producing a mental image

cognitive or procedural

MP can take the form of thinking about the… aspects of a motor skill

visual/kinesthetic

engages in… imagery of the performance of a skill or part of a skill; can be internal or external perspective

internal perspective

first person; visual image of performing the skill from inside the performer’s body

external perspective

third person; visual image of watching skill performance as if the performer were a spectator; elite athletes prefer this perspective

roles for mental practice

acquisition of a new motor skill; performance preparation of a well learned skill (or skills)

ways MP can serve as a performance aid

action preparation; memory storage and retrieval

mental practice vs. physical practice

both > physical practice only > mental practice only > no practice

Reiser study comparing strength gains between groups over 4 weeks of resistance training

groups: 100% RT only, 75/25 combined, 50/50 combined, 25/75 combined, control (no exercise)

results: all groups showed strength gains compared to control; differences were minimal; strength gains still present 4 weeks after training concluded (long term improvements); suggests mental training can promote neuromuscular changes

Hird et al. study comparing MP and physical practice

groups: 100% physical practice, 75/25, 50/50, 25/75, 100% MP, control (none)

results: all groups were significantly improved above the control group

Fairweather and Sidaway 17 years olds with irregular spinal curvature and LBP study

intervention: 1 group targeted abdominal exercises, 1 group relaxation followed by imagery (4 prompts: trunk, buttocks, pelvis, thighs)

results: only relaxation and imagery group saw significant improvements (measured spinal angel and reduction in LBP)

Page et al. 56 year old stroke patients with upper body hemiparesis study

intervention (combination PT and MI): physical therapy session (3x per week, 6 weeks → 1 hour/session, 30 min arms/30 min legs), mental imagery session (2x per week after PT, 2x per week at home)

results: improved wrist and finger control; grip, grasp, and pinch improvements; improved in 6/10 items of stroke rehab assessment of movement (STREAM)

other ways MP can help

part of a general preparation strategy aimed at aiding learning (5 step approach); power training

power training

exercises, and/or sports where physical practice is difficult, costly, and/or too expensive to physically practice

benefits of combined practice

by combining physical and mental practice you can greatly reduce the number of trials it takes to learn a motor skill compared to physical practice only (may reduce trials by as much as 50%)

5 step learning strategy (Singer’s 5 step approach)

1. prepare yourself mentally, physically, emotionally

2. use MI to perform the action visually and kinesthetically

3. concentrate on one specific cue

4. execution of the action

5. evaluate the performance outcome

imagery ability

ability to engage in MI of a give action when requested

necessary to understand your patient/client/athlete/student (imagery ability)

some people have great difficulty imaging a described action; others can do so with great detail (high vividness)

effectiveness is influenced by the vividness of person’s mental image (imagery ability)

imagery ability influences success of MP

imagery is a skill that can be trained

why can people with low imagery ability still benefit from MP?

motivational - specific imagery

ex: winning a trophy, getting 1st place, winning a championship

motivational - general mastery

being confident and focused

motivational - general arousal

being relaxed at the start of a race; not tense; in the moment

cognitive - specific

reaching to pick up a cup

cognitive - general

visualizing the steps to perform a dance routine

neuromuscular hypothesis

EMG recordings in muscles show involvement

cognitive hypothesis

benefits related to answering pertinent questions that are important during motor skill learning (problem-solving; cognitive processing)

brain activity hypothesis

brain activity is similar when imaging moving a limb compared to physically moving the same limb

neuromuscular hypothesis, cognitive hypothesis, and brain activity hypothesis

three generally accepted hypotheses for why mental practice is effective

absence

MP can be used in the… of physical practice, but it should not be a replacement (supplemental)