L8b Memory: encoding processes

What are the 3 stages of memory

encoding, consolidation + storage, retrieval

What is the theory vs reality of these 3 stages of memory

they occur in sequential stages vs there is dynamic movement forwards and backwards in the stages

What is the Zeigarnik effect

the tendency to remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones

4 methods of creating long-lasting memories

practice and repetition, spacing and the testing effect, motivation, organisation and schemas

What is the Total Time hypothesis, proposed by Ebbinghaus, about learning and study time

learning is linearly related to the amount of study time

What can we assume then drives brain plasticity

practice

What brain area was large in taxi drivers and what did the brain area’s size correlate with

posterior hippocampus, correlated with time spent as a taxi driver

Experiment – medical students were scanned at three intervals (before, during, and after intensive exams) – what increased in which two brains areas and how long did these effects last

gray matter volume in the parietal cortex and posterior hippocampus, 3 months

What is the repetition effect

that generally, repetition improves learning

When does simple repetition fail to lead to learning

no attempt to organise the material, especially if info is complex and not perceived as useful

What indicates that memory and attention is very selective

extensive practice is not registered if not deemed important

What is spaced repetition

distributing learning trials sparsely across a period of time

What are the 2 outcomes of spaced repetition

faster improvement rates of learning and less forgetting

Why does spaced repetition work – what does it allow for and what this means for memory

allows for consolidation between trials which enables memory to become more firmly established

What are the caveats of spaced repetition (2)

takes longer so not always practical or convenient and individuals may feel less efficient

What two conditions did Kornell and Bjork test when getting students to learn the styles of 12 artists, and which was more effective

interleaved (spaced) vs massed, interleaved was more effective

Baddeley and Longman tested 4 training schedules for learning typing skills, which training led to the fastest learning (hour/day and for how long)

1hr day over 11 weeks compared to those training 4hrs a day in 4 weeks

What is the testing effect

testing yourself produces between learning than simply reviewing/re-studying material

Fill in the gaps about feedback in the testing effect (2 is two words)

later recall, corrective feedback, strengthened, retention

What study strategy promoted the deepest learning (inference effects)

group that studied then tested themselves

Motivation to learn can make learning more efficient, what are the two ways motivation can affect learning

automatically or strategically

How does motivation affect learning automatically

external or internal motives prior to exposure to stimuli improves memory

How does motivation affect learning strategically

people use deeper and more elaborate memorisation strategies for high value items

What did Gruber et al find about curiosity and memory

high curiosity during learning improved memory but not only for the item of interested but also for unrelated incidental material presented close in time

Does a familiar or novel environment facilitate enhanced memory encoding

novel

How does novelty facilitate memory encoding – what does it trigger the release of, in what area of the brain (VTA), and what brain area does this engage

dopaminergic release in the ventral tegmental area -> engaged hippocampal encoding of the novel information

Ballarini et al tested novelty and memory in children, these were the two conditions as well as a control condition which involved no novelty – what was the effect of these unrelated novel experiences on children’s memory

improved in the one-hour condition, no effect in 4-hour gap

What brain regions and brain area is associated with motivation-enhanced memory encoding

network of brain regions involving the hippocampus

What are subsequent memory effects

brain areas more active during encoding for items later remembered compared to items later forgotten

Which brain area showed subsequent memory effects in Kim et al’s meta analysis

hippocampus

What is subjective organisation, according to Tulving

chunking together separate words for recall, even if those words weren’t encoded together

3 ways to chunk together items

linked to a common associate, coming from the same semantic category, or forming a logical hierarchical structure

How did Frederic Bartlett’s approach to memory differ, what type of information did he examine (3)

recall of complex materials, recall errors and meaningful information

What did Bartlett argue was the best way to organise thought and eventually memory

by giving meaning to studied materials

2 ways in which ascribing meaning to stimuli can influence learning/memory

modulate encoding of information and how it is stored in memory

What is Paivio’s Dual-coding hypothesis (related to meaning)

more imageable words are more memorable

Why are imageable words more memorable

can be encoded via multiple routes which improves the chance of successful recall

Words with high imageability e.g. church, arm, apple, can be encoded via what two routes

visual appearance and verbal meaning

Words with low imageability e.g. virtue, history, silence, can be encoded via what one routes

verbal meaning

What is the hypothesis that attempts to explain why meaning facilitates long-term memory

levels of processing (LOP) framework

Explain the LOP framework by Craik and Lockhart, what is memory a by-product of

memory is a by-product of the depth at which information is processed

What are the 3 levels of processing

visual processing is shallow, phonological is intermediate and semantic processing is the deepest and most memorable

Craik and Tulving’s levels of processing experiment – which condition elicited greater recall

semantic

Complete the limitations of LOP framework

define, serial order, simultaneously

What does this experimental evidence by Sommer et al demonstrate about schemas and memory

existing schemas support new encoding

In a study by Liu et al., participants had to encode associations between faces and houses, they remembered double the amount of pairs when the faces were famous – what does this suggest

prior knowledge supports encoding

What two Brian regions support the integration of new information with prior knowledge

ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and hippocampus

What is the overall conclusion about organisations and schemas in memory

when given the opportunity to organise information (e.g. schema, semantic knowledge), memory performance is guided by meaning

What are the 3 factors that support encoding

practice, create connections + organisation, and motivation

What are the tools used within each factor

spaced repetition and testing effect; meaning, imagery, levels of processing and schema; internal and external