MINI EXAM #9

reproductive justice movement - principles:

To have a child under conditions of one’s choosing + to not have a child through birth control, abortion, abstinence + to parent children in safe/healthy environments free from violence by individuals or the state

stratified reproduction - definition:

where people of different races, classes, ethnicities, sexual orientation and/or nationality have differing access to reproductive health and fertility treatments

the abortion rate in the United States has been declining since 1981… why is that?

increased access to contraception and decreased sexual activity

globally abortion rates tend to increase or decrease in countries that are more restricted?

increase

why do abortion rates increase in areas that restrict abortion?

because access to contraception is also restricted in those places

disabled people that were pregnant or hoping to get pregnant - often experienced what?

dehumanization from providers (treated as a body rather than a full person)

Being denied a abortion when u want or need one is much more linked to…

longer harm

Impacts of the Dobbs case in the US

low-income, Black, Latina may need to travel to different state & delayed access to safe abortions + those who can't afford time off work face additional barriers + criminalization of providers who assist patients w/self-managed abortion + increased mortality by denial of care + more people forced to resort to unsafe abortions

stigma itself can cause what?

extreme stress and make women hesitant to seek social support

"stratification of privilege" - meaning:

some groups have more autonomy over there rights

reproductive justice movement - ultimate goal:

ensure reproductive freedom

motherhood mandate - definition:

the social pressures, especially on women, to have children

compulsory motherhood

cultural belief that all women should have children

The Motherhood Mystique - definition

beliefs about motherhood itself

abortion - definition

the ending of a pregnancy by removing an embryo or a fetus

some women worry they’ll be forced to have an abortion that they do not - what?

want

most abortions occur in which trimester

first

1973 - Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade…

made abortion legal in the United States

some medical providers and social workers believe that disabled women should or should not have an abortion?

should

A study found that women who were allowed to have abortions were less likely to experience…

mental health problems than women who were denied abortions and carried an unplanned pregnancy to term

In a 2008 report, the American Psychological Association concluded that abortion does not result in negative mental health outcomes, but that an unplanned pregnancy is…

a significantly stressful life event

Being denied a abortion when u want or need one is much more linked to longer harm - such as:

anxiety, poorer life outcomes for mother and child, higher mortality/illness of child

Children born to parents who say the pregnancy was unwanted are at greater risk for:

cognitive, emotional, and social problems

To have children or not - this decision is..

complex and multifaceted

“Power relations by which some categories of people are empowered to nurture and reproduce, while others are disempowered” - who says this?

Rapp & Ginsberg 1995

Fertility – rates; issue for; treating infertility (see the book); Black women

What makes it difficult to choose not to have children?

social pressures

What can limit access to reproductive healthcare, including safe and legal abortions - making it difficult for many people who wish to become pregnant able to do so?

political barriers

voluntary childlessness - definition

the choice not to have children

Being “childfree” - “Early articulators”

early on decide do not want children

Being “childfree” - “Postponers”

may eventually have children but delay decision

Societal evaluations on not wanting/having children

negative → selfish, less of a “true woman,” bitter career woman + rated as less fulfilled, less happy and having a less rewarding life

common rebuttals to a person saying they don’t want kids

“you’ll change your mind”

Women who are voluntarily childfree:

have high levels of autonomy and achievement orientation (within certain cultures this is true, but not all)

Miscarriages - definition:

the experience of losing a pregnancy before the 20th week of gestation (occurs in 1 in 6 pregnancies)

stillbirth - definition

he experience of losing a pregnancy after the 20th week of gestation (occurs in approximately 1 in 100 pregnancies + can be shocking/devastating, leading to considerable grief)

Pregnancy - average age at first child’s birth is older now than in the past?

yes

Pregnancy- first trimester

morning sickness; fatigue; miscarriage worries

Pregnancy: average age at first child birth - 1960s

approximately 21 years

Pregnancy: average age at first child birth - 2003

approximately 24 years

Pregnancy: average age at first child birth - 2014

 approximately 26 years

Pregnancy: average age at first child birth - 2021

 approximately 27 years

Pregnancy- second trimester

start to “show,” feel movement; often considered the “best” trimester

Pregnancy - third trimester

physical awkwardness and discomfort

Pregnancy - body image

can cause concerns in some; others experience freedom from the thin ideal

Some trans men view pregnancy not inherently linked with…

femininity

White, able-bodied, upper-middle-class cisgender women who are pregnant are generally treated with..

kindness and benevolent sexism

Poor, single, black, and/or teenaged women who are pregnant are often…

negatively stereotypes

Why do pregnant men often face stigma?

because it is not socially accepted to be pregnant in a man’s body

Stages of labor and vagina childbirth - first

a few hours to a few days long; uterine contractions every 5 minutes and cervix dilates to 10 centimeters

Stages of labor and vagina childbirth - second

minutes to hours long; contractions move baby down vagina; person pushes; ends in birth of child

Stages of labor and vagina childbirth - third

about 20 minutes; placenta separates from uterine wall and is expelled

Childbirth carries considerable…

risk

What are the primary reasons for maternal mortality?

hemorrhage, heart conditions, and infection → 60% of these cases are deemed preventable

Other factors contributing to maternal mortality:

misdiagnosis, lack of understanding of warning signs, and lack of coordination between different health-care professionals

There are stark _____ disparities in maternal mortality in the US

racial

Societal + institutional + structural racism can lead to…

toxic physiological stress (and that can lead to pre-eclampsia, hypertension, and other life-threatening health issues)

Institutional racism manifests in ______ women not being taken seriously by medical professionals

Black

Postpartum depression - definition

feelings of sadness, anxiety, exhaustion, guilt and worthlessness lasting at least two weeks

Case of Serena Williams shows:

Black women are 3x as likely to die after childbirth than white women

1997 study discounted poverty as…

the explanation for infant mortality

Postpartum anxiety - definition:

feelings after the birth of a child that include fear, worry, a sense of dread, obsessive checking, difficulty sleeping, and other physical symptoms such as dizziness, nausea, and headaches

Fears and intrusive thoughts of intentionally harming one’s child were unexpectedly common and related to…

postpartum anxiety

Benefits of breastfeeding for the child include…

positive health outcomes (ex: decreased risk of infection); cognitive benefits

Breastfeeding is recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics for the first:

6 months of life, and it can be continued for up to 2 years

Breastfeeding is correlated with benefits for the…

lactating parent

breastfeeding - short-term:

reduced bleeding, reduced postpartum depression, reduced stress, and improved body image

breastfeeding - long-term

reduced risks of breast and ovarian cancer, diabetes, arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease, and multiple sclerosis

who is more likely to breastfeed?

educated, 30+ years old, White and Asian, receive support and encouragement + training and guidance

There are also barriers to breastfeeding, such as…

social stigma, lack of support, and difficulty in learning how to breastfeed

Can everyone breastfeed? Not everyone can breastfeed, and there are many different ways to feed a baby

no, there are many different ways to feed a baby

Is breastfeeding a personal choice?

yes

Mothering - definition:

changes in identity and family role

Can motherhood be connected to profound identity shifts?

yes

Do gender roles within relationships become more traditional after having a child?

yes, they can

Maternal gatekeeping - definition:

mothers limiting how involved fathers are allowed to be in caring for children

Gestational trans parents report:

loneliness; internal struggles related to identity; challenges navigating the external world

Patterns of inequality were enhanced during the COVID-19 pandemic and…

many women left the paid workplace

Intensive parenting:

the idea that parents, especially mothers, are expected to: be fully immersed in the parenting experience, seek expert advice on how to parent, engage their children in cognitively stimulating activities in order to ensure optimal brain development, feel ultimately fulfilled in the role

Internalizing perfection can lead to…

high levels of stress and anxiety

Attachment parenting is a form of:

intensive parenting that focuses on meeting children’s needs on their own schedules

Mother blame:

mothers tend to be held solely responsible for the actions, health, behaviors, and well-being of their children

mother blame - examples:

schizophrenia; eating disorders; impacts of domestic violence

Mothers often feel pressure to choose between…

work and motherhood

Women with different social identities receive different messages regarding whether they are “supposed” to…

work or not

For most women, there is no choice and the family cannot make ends meet unless…

the mother works

Maternal employment correlates to academic success in…

children, particularly girls

Will looking at an ultrasound before an abortion change your mind? (Dockterman, E. 2014)

Most women do not change their decision after seeing an ultrasound; only a small number, usually those already unsure are influenced + laws requiring ultrasounds are debated (supporters say it supports informed consent, while critics say it can be emotionally manipulative) + the article highlights the broader conflict between personal autonomy and government regulation in abortion decisions.