Benchmark 1

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, and ideas between the Americas, Europe, and Africa during the 15th and 16th centuries.

Portuguese motives for colonial possession and early exploration

Reasons such as trade and economic expansion, spread of Christianity, competition with other European powers, search for prestige and power, and curiosity and scientific exploration.

Adam Smith thoughts on economics

Emphasized free market capitalism, self-interest, competition, invisible hand guiding the economy, limited government intervention, and division of labor for increased productivity.

Martin Luther

German theologian central to the Protestant Reformation, known for 95 Theses, criticism of indulgences, justification by faith, Bible translation, priesthood of all believers, excommunication, and impact on Lutheranism.

Peace of Westphalia

Treaty ending the Thirty Years' War, establishing state sovereignty, recognizing Swiss and Dutch independence, dividing Germany, and setting the stage for the modern nation-state system.

The Spanish and the Aztecs, Incas, and Taino

Impact of Spanish conquest on indigenous civilizations, including Hernan Cortes and the Aztecs, Francisco Pizarro and the Incas, and the colonization of the Taino in the Caribbean.

Portuguese, sugarcane, and trade dominance

Introduction of sugarcane to the Americas, rise of plantation economies, Portuguese dominance in the spice trade, and decline due to competition and political changes.

Brazil as a colony

Reasons for Portuguese interest, including location, resources, trade, strategic importance, colonization, exploitation, and economic potential.

Cortez/Pizarro in Spanish conquest

Roles of Cortez in the Aztec conquest and Pizarro in the Inca conquest, using superior weaponry, alliances, and political strategies for victory.

Atlantic triangular trade

Trade routes involving Africa, the Americas, and Europe, with the exchange of slaves, raw materials, and manufactured goods, impacting economies, societies, and cultures.

Queen Nzinga

17th-century ruler of Ndongo and Matamba in Angola, known for resistance against Portuguese colonization, diplomatic skills, and symbolizing resistance and empowerment.

African forms of slavery

Aspects of pre-European slavery, including transatlantic slave trade, plantation and domestic slavery, slave codes, resistance, abolition movement, and lasting effects on African societies.

Bartolome de Las Casas

Spanish historian advocating for indigenous rights, critic of Spanish colonization, documented atrocities, proposed African slave labor, and influenced Spanish colonization.

Reconquista

Christian reconquest in the Iberian Peninsula, lasting from the 8th to the 15th century, unifying Spain and spreading Christianity.

Volta do mar

Navigational technique by Portuguese sailors during the Age of Discovery, involving sailing out into the Atlantic before turning back, crucial for exploration and trade routes.

Ming Dynasty

Social hierarchy influenced by Confucianism, emphasizing gender roles, filial piety, civil service exams, moral conduct, and men's dominance in society.

Bakufu Japan

Feudal military government in Japan, centralized power in the shogun, with samurai warriors, daimyo, and vassals, lasting until the Meiji Restoration in 1868.

Tokugawa Ieyasu

Founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate, unified Japan, implemented social hierarchy, isolationist policies, economic growth, arts promotion, and maintained peace for over 250 years.

Daimyo

Powerful feudal lords in feudal Japan, controlling territories, ruling over samurai warriors, and playing significant roles in political and military affairs.

Columbus

Italian explorer who discovered the Americas, sponsored by Spain, impacting the Columbian Exchange and European colonization.

Olaudah Equiano

Nigerian born, enslaved, bought freedom, abolitionist, wrote "The Interesting Narrative," and influenced the end of British slave trade.

Ottoman and Mughal religious treatment

Differences in religious tolerance, with the Ottoman Empire allowing diversity and the Mughal Empire promoting syncretism.

Boundaries of the Ottoman Empire

Covered portions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, extending to the Mediterranean, Red Sea, and Caucasus region.

Akbar and religious tolerance

Mughal emperor promoting religious tolerance, abolishing taxes, establishing a blend of religions, and fostering social harmony.

Battle of Chaldiran

Fought on 23 August 1514.

Chaldiran Battle

Ottoman Empire defeated Safavid Empire in present-day Iran, halting Safavid expansion into Anatolia.

Geographic determinism

The idea that geography influences the development of societies.

Domestication of plants and animals

Enabled settled agriculture and surplus production in human societies.

Advantages of Eurasia

Access to diverse resources, large population, and an east-west axis benefited Eurasian societies.

Impact of germs

Eurasian diseases had devastating effects on indigenous populations.

Technological advancements

Eurasians developed guns, steel, and writing systems, aiding in their advancement.

Colonialism and imperialism

European powers dominated other regions through colonization and imperialism.

Cultural diffusion

Exchange of ideas, technologies, and goods between different societies.

Social inequality

Unequal distribution of resources and power within societies.

Environmental impact

Human activities have consequences on ecosystems and sustainability.

Haitian Revolution

1791-1804 slave revolt in Haiti led to the country's independence.

Ptolemaic view of the universe

Geocentric model placing Earth at the center, with planets moving in epicycles.

Foot-binding

Ancient Chinese practice of tightly binding girls' feet for beauty and status, causing deformity and disabilities.