AP Psych Unit 2: Cognition

Bottom-up vs Top-down processing

Bottom-up: external sensory info is used to build a perception

Top-down: internal expectations, experience, and motives are used to build a perception

4 principles of Gestalt Psychology

1. Closure: incomplete objects are viewed as complete by filling in gaps

2. Figure and ground: an object stands out as the figure and the surroundings is the ground

3. Proximity: items close together are viewed as a group

4. Similarity: similar items are viewed as a group

Gestalt Psychology helps explain how humans organize the perceptual world.

Divided Attention vs Selective Attention

1. processing more than one piece of information

2. focused awareness of certain stimuli

Cocktail party effect

The ability to process one of several speech streams while ignoring others

Inattentional blindness vs Change blindness

1. the failure to notice visual stimuli when attention is directed elsewhere

   1. the failure to notice a change in the environment when attention is directed elsewhere

Depth Perception + 2 Types of Cues

Depth perception helps us perceive things in a 3D space and judge distance.

1. Binocular depth cues use both eyes.

   1. Monocular depth cues use one eye to give the illusion of depth on flat surfaces.

2 Binocular Depth Cues

1. Retinal disparity: the difference between what each eye sees

   1. Convergence: the extent to which both eyes rotate inward

5 Monocular Depth Cues

1. Relative clarity: objects that are closer appear clearer

2. Relative size: objects that are closer (and close in size) appear larger

3. Texture gradient: objects that are closer appear in more detail

4. Linear perspective: two parallel lines appear closer together when further away

5. Interposition: objects that are closer will partially block objects that are farther away

Visual Perceptual Constancies + 4 Examples

These constancies maintain the perception of an object even as images of the object changes.

Color constancy, brightness constancy, shape constancy, size constancy

3 Illusions of Movement

1. Apparent movement: movement perceived when objects are not moving

2. Phi phenomenon: an illusion of movement is created when multiple lights rapidly blink on and off

3. Stroboscopic movement: an illusion of movement is created by a rapid series of slightly varying images

2 Types of Concepts

Concepts form the basis of cognition and come from experience. They’re mental groupings based on shared features.

1. Concrete/formal concepts: defined by a set of characteristics

   1. Natural/abstract concepts: imprecise and develop from everyday experiences

Prototypes

The ideal example of a concept

‘Apples’ are a prototype for the concept ‘fruit’.

Schema vs Perceptual set vs Mental set

1. Mental framework for perceiving the world using context, based on past experiences (the tendency to perceive something a certain way)

2. Having an expectation for a stimulus (more short-term/situational)

3. The tendency to approach new problems the same way that previously worked instead of trying new solutions that might be more effective

Assimilation vs Accomodation

1. Placing new information in an existing schema without changing the schema

2. Integrating new information by changing an existing schema or creating a new one

Two Types of Heuristics

Heuristics use mental shortcuts to make judgements without having to check every possible solution, can lead to errors.

1. Representative heuristic: makes decisions based on stereotypes and expectations (how well something matches the prototype)

2. Availability heuristic: makes decisions based on how readily it comes to mind

Framing

How circumstances affect problem-solving

Convergent vs Divergent Thinking

1. Using knowledge and logic to narrow down options for a single correct answer

   1. Generating diverse ideas, using creativity

Functional fixedness

A type of mental set that hinders problem-solving because you’re stuck on an object’s common use

Memory can be divided into

Explicit/declarative memories: recalled with conscious awareness

Implicit/non-declarative memories: recalled without conscious awareness

3 Types of Explicit Memory

Episodic: unique, personal experiences

Semantic: specific facts and conceptual understandings

Prospective: remembering to remember, or remembering the intent to perform a specific action

3 Types of Implicit Memory

Procedural: the knowledge to do something

Classically conditioned responses: learned associations that evoke emotional/psychological responses

Primed responses: the unconscious influence of something on future thoughts/behaviors

• Repetition priming: exposure to stimuli makes it easier to recognize the same/similar stimuli

  • Semantic priming: a word influences the interpretation of another word

The Working Memory Model + Its 4 Parts

Short-term memory/working memory not only stores but also processes temporary information.

1. The phonological loop handles verbal and auditory information.

2. The visuospatial sketchpad handles visual and spatial information.

3. The central executive is the control center of working memory.

4. The episodic buffer combines and integrates the different components of working memory into long-term memory.

Multi-Store Memory Model

1. Sensory memory: immediate recording of sensory information (iconic/visual and echoic/auditory)

2. Short-term memory: holds sensory memory we pay attention to, which can be maintained through rehearsal, until it’s encoded into long-term

3. Long-term memory: relatively permanent

Encoding and Consolidation + 3 Types of Processing

Encoding is the process of processing information to be stored in long-term memory. Memory consolidation stores information in long-term memory.

• Encoding failure can be caused by lack of attention or rehearsal.

1. Structural processing: memory is shallowly encoded based on physical appearance

2. Phonemic processing: slightly deeper encoding, based on sound

3. Semantic processing: deepest, focuses on meaning

Decay Theory

Memories fade over time if not actively reinforced

Forgetting Curve

Shows memory retention without reinforcement over time

Maintenance vs Elaborative Rehearsal

1. Repeatedly recalling information

2. Creating connections between new info and existing info

Mnemonic Devices + 2 Examples

Memory aids that may use rhymes, acronyms, etc.

The method of loci (memory palace) associates information with specific locations in a familiar setting.

Chunking separates info into smaller units.

5 Principles of Memory

Spacing effect: memory is enhanced by distributing studying and practice

Testing effect: memory is enhanced through the process of retrieval

Serial position effect: the position of an item in a list affects the probability of retreival

• Primacy effect: info that comes first is easier to remember

• Recency effect: info that comes last is easier to remember

Recall vs Recognition

Recall retrieves memories without cues, recognition uses cues.

Amnesia + 5 Types

Loss of memory

Anterograde: inability to remember new information

Retrograde: inability to remember past information

Global: both anterograde and retrograde

Source: inability to remember where/how information was learned

Infantile: inability to remember early years of life

Interference + 2 Types

Difficulty retrieving memories

Proactive: past memories block the recall of new memories

Retroactive: new memories block the recall of past memories

5 Types of Memory

Flashbulb memories: very clear, often formed around highly-emotional events

Autobiographical memories: more memorable, related to events in one’s personal life

Context-dependent memories: easier to retrieve in the same environment as when the memory was formed

State-dependent memories: easier to retrieve in the same physical/mental state as when the memory was formed

Mood-congruent memories: easier to retrieve in the mood as when the memory was formed

Constructive Memory Theory + Misinformation Effect

1. During memory recall, the Brain does not exact rebuild past experiences and instead combines elements like assumptions and expectations

2. False or misleading information can distort memory

Charles Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence

General Factor, G: general mental ability

Specific Factors, S: specific mental abilities

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory

There are various types of intelligence, meaning someone can be smart in one area and not in another.

Raymond Catell’s Theory of Intelligence

Fluid intelligence: the ability to quickly reason and break down abstract problems

Crystallized intelligence: accumulated knowledge/skills

Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Practical intelligence: how well you can function in your environment (realistic)

Creative intelligence: how well you can handle new situations (experiential)

Analytical intelligence: how well you can find the answer to a problem (academic)

Psychometrics

the study of measuring mental capacities

Intelligence Quotient + Flynn effect

standardized measure of intelligence based on problem-solving ability

Fynn effect: the increase in IQ scores over generations

Achievement vs Aptitude Tests

1. aims to measure knowledge at one point in time

   1. aims to predict future performance

Stereotype Threat vs Lift

Stereotype threat: an individual may feel anxiety when at risk for confirming negative stereotypes

Stereotype lift: an individual’s performance benefits from positive stereotypes

What are the aspects of a reliable and valid test?

Standardization: the test is administered/scored consistently

Test-retest reliability: results are consistent when the same person retakes it

Split-half reliability: results within two halves of the same test are consistent

Content validity: whether the test actually covers the entire topic being measured

Construct validity: how well the test measures the concept it’s supposed to

Criterion validity: how accurately the test predicts an outcome that matches an existing standard

Predictive validity: how accurately the test predicts what it is supposed to