2.1 AQA A-level Philosophy: Normative ethical theories (AO1)

Practice questions made using subject specific vocabulary, the specification and past papers.

What is normative ethics? (3)

• Normative ethics studies how people ought to act and attempts to develop moral principles and theories that determine what actions are right and wrong.

• This includes utilitarianism, Kantian deontological ethics and Aristotelian virtue ethics.

What does ‘hedonism’ mean? (3)

• Hedonism is the view that pleasure is the greatest good and pain is the greatest evil.

• Jeremy Bentham incorporates psychological hedonism into classical utilitarianism in declaring that humans are naturally motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

What is psychological hedonism? (3)

• Psychological hedonism is the idea that humans are naturally motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain.

• Jeremy Bentham puts this as ‘nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pleasure and pain’.

• All human actions are therefore in the pursuit of pleasure and pleasure is the (only/ultimate) good

What is ethical hedonism? (3)

• Ethical hedonism is the view that (all) moral value can only be derived from pleasure and only pain has no moral value.

• It is the corner stone of classical/hedonistic utilitarianism.

• From it, we can derive the principle of utility.

What is utilitarianism? (3)

• Utilitarianism is a consequentialist normative ethical theory.

• It argues that moral value lies only in actions that maximise utility.

What is meant by ‘utility’? (3)

• Utility can be defined simply as useful or desirability.

• Jeremy Bentham, a hedonistic utilitarian, defines utility as a property ‘that tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good or happiness’.

• This property also prevents ‘the happening of mischief, pain evil, or unhappiness’.

What is the principle of utility? (3)

• The principles of utility states an action is morally right if it maximises happiness or produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

• It was created by Jeremy Bentham.

What is act utilitarianism? (3)

• Act utilitarianism argues that we should determine (reasonably expect/predict that) whether utility is being maximised on a case-by-case basis.

• Jeremy Bentham’s felicific/hedonic/utility calculus can be used to do this.

What is rule utilitarianism? (3)

• Rule utilitarianism argues that utility is being maximised when actions adhere to a general set of rules.

• Weak rule utilitarianism claims that the rules should be adhered to unless going against them maximises utility.

• Strong rule utilitarianism, by contrast, claims that rules should always be adhered to.

Outline one difference between act and rule utilitarianism. (3)

• Act utilitarianism argues that in order to determine actions are maximising utility, we must consider them on a case-by-case basis.

• Rule utilitarianism, by contrast, claim we can determine whether actions are maximising utility by their adherence to a general set of rules.

• These rules maximise utility for the greatest number.

What is quantitative utilitarianism? (3)

• Quantitative utilitarianism views all actions as having an equal capacity to produce pleasure.

• There is no distinction between pleasures in and of themselves.

• An example of this is Bentham’s utilitarianism.

What is qualitative utilitarianism? (3)

• Qualitative utilitarianism views all actions as having a different capacity for how much pleasure they can produce.

• Some actions are also more morally valuable than others and so all pleasures do not equally contribute to maximising utility.

• An example of this is Mill’s distinction between higher and lower pleasures.

What are higher pleasures? (3)

• Higher pleasure are pleasures that people would prefer even if they caused some discomfort.

• They appeal to distinctly human faculties such as reason.

• Mill argues that they are more worthwhile than so-called lower pleasures.

What are lower pleasures? (3)

• Lower pleasures are often described as ordinary pleasures.

• It is possible for animals to also experience lower pleasure as they require little of our distinctly ‘human’ faculties such as debating or reading.

What is Mill’s greatest happiness principle? (3)

• Mill claims that actions are morally right to the extent that they cause happiness.

• Happiness is understood, in this case, as pleasure and the absence of pain.

What is preference utilitarianism? (3)

• Preference utilitarianism argues that preference is the same as moral good.

• This means that utility is maximised when (we can reasonably expect/predict that) the preferences of the greatest number are satisfied.

What is non-hedonistic utilitarianism? (3)

• Non-hedonistic utilitarianism argues that actions are morally right to the extent that (we can reasonably expect/predict that) it maximises utility.

• Utility is not understood as pleasure or the absence of pain.

What is Nozick’s experience machine? (3)

• Nozick’s experience machine is a thought experiment where a person can experience any pleasure they desire.

• Someone who is plugged will not be aware that they are plugged in and will understand the ‘experience’ to be reality.

• Nozick argues that if such a machine existed, most people would not choose to plug themselves in.

Explain how an act utilitarian would make a moral decision. (5)

• Act utilitarianism argues that we should determine (reasonably expect/predict that) whether utility is being maximised on a case-by-case basis.

• This is because the principle of utility states that an action is morally right if it maximises utility for the greatest number of people.

• For hedonistic act utilitarianism specifically, we can determine whether an action is maximising utility by using algorithms such Bentham’s felicific/hedonic/utility calculus.

• Bentham’s felicific/hedonic/utility looks at factors whether such as the purity, fecundity, duration and intensity of pleasure are maximised in order to determine whether the action produces the most happiness

• If all the factors are maximised, then a hedonistic act utilitarian would say the action is morally right.

Outline how a rule utilitarian would make a moral decision. (5)

• Rule utilitarianism argues that we can determine (reasonably expect/predict that) whether utility is by the extent to which an action adheres to a general set of rules.

• These rules maximise utility for the greatest number.

• This is important the principle of utility states that an action is morally right if it maximises utility for the greatest number of people.

• For weak rule utilitarianism, the rules should be adhered to unless going against them maximises utility.

• Strong rule utilitarianism, on the other hand, claims that rules should always be adhered to.

• There are no exceptions to the rules.

Explain the difference between act and rule utilitarianism. (5)

• Act utilitarianism argues that we should determine (reasonably expect/predict that) whether utility is being maximised by looking at them on a case-by-case basis.

• This is because the principle of utility states that an action is morally right if it maximises utility for the greatest number of people.

• This can be done using algorithms such as Bentham’s felicific/hedonic/utility calculus, which looks at seven factors, in order to determine whether utility has been maximised.

• Rule utilitarianism, on the other hand, argues that we can determine (reasonably expect/predict that) whether utility is by the extent to which an action adheres to a general set of rules.

• These rules maximise utility for the greatest number.

Explain Bentham’s felicific/hedonic/utility calculus. (5)

• Bentham’s felicific/hedonic/utility calculus offers guidance to how individuals on how they should act in order to ensure their actions are following the principle of utility.

• The principle of utility states that the actions that produce the greatest happiness or give pleasure to the greatest number of people are morally right.

• To do this, Bentham provides seven factors that we should consider to do this. They include looking at the whether the fecundity, duration and intensity of the pleasure are maximised.

• If they are maximised, then we can determine (reasonably expect/predict) that the action is morally right.

Outline Bentham’s utilitarianism. (5)

• Jeremy Bentham is a quantitative hedonistic act utilitarianism.

• He takes utility as a property that tends to produce pleasure and argues that it should be maximised and that properties that cause pain should be minimised.

• He makes no distinction between pleasures in and of themselves.

• This is because he believes that all actions have an equal capacity to produce pleasure.

• Human pleasure and animal pleasure, for example, are of equal value.

• He also believes that to determine whether actions are morally right, we should look at the extent (reasonably expect/predict that) they produce utility on a case-by-case basis.

• We can use his felicific/hedonic/utility calculus, which looks at the extent to which factors such as intensity, duration and purity are maximised, to determine (reasonably expect/predict that) whether an action is morally right.

Outline Mill’s distinction between higher and lower pleasures. (5)

• Mill claims that higher pleasures are consistently ‘preferred’ over lower pleasures, even when they cause some dissatisfaction.

• This is because higher pleasures appeal to our distinctly ‘human’ faculties such as debate or reading.

• Lower pleasures, on the other hand, are possible for both humans and animals.

• HIgher and lower pleasure are not of equal moral value, with higher pleasure being more valuable, according to Mill.

• What are considered higher and lower pleasures are determined by competent judges who have experienced both.

Explain Mill’s ‘proof’ of the greatest happiness principle. (5)

• Mill’s ‘proof’ of the greatest happiness principle is an informal, inductive argument for happiness being the greatest and only good.

• It has three steps: happiness is desirable as an end; the ‘general happiness’ is desirable as an end; nothing except happiness is desirable as an end.

• With his first step, Mill likens how objects are visible only if they can be seen to desire. He claims ‘the sole evidence’ that anything is desirable if people actually desire it.

• In his second step, Mill posits that the ‘general happiness’ is desirable as everyone desires their own happiness.

• In his final step, Mill argues that happiness is the only thing we desire for itself. Everything that we desire is a constituent part of happiness.

• Therefore, happiness is the greatest and only good according to Mill.

Outline Mill’s utilitarianism. (5)

• Mill is a qualitative hedonistic utilitarian.

• He claims in his ‘greatest happiness principle’ that actions are morally right to the extent that they cause happiness.

• Happiness is understood, in this case, as pleasure and the absence of pain.

• He makes a distinction in the moral value between what he calls higher and lower pleasures.

• Higher pleasures appeal to distinctly ‘human’ faculties such as reading and debates and consistently preferred over lower pleasures.

• Lower pleasures are possible for both humans and animals.

• What are considered higher and lower pleasures are decided by competent judges, who have experienced both.

Explain how Nozick’s ‘experience machine’ challenges the view that pleasure is the only good/hedonism. (5)

• Nozick’s ‘experience machine’ is a thought experiment that asks us to conceive of a machine that we can be plugged into in order to experience the greatest possible pleasures.

• The cost of this is that we will no longer be aware of reality outside of the machine once we are plugged into it.

• Our experiences inside the machine would be what we believe in reality to be like.

• If such a machine existed, hedonistic utilitarians would have to argue that as happiness is the greatest good, everyone must plug themselves into the machine.

• However, Nozick argues that most people would refuse.

• This is because happiness is not the only thing they desire/value.

Explain the issues that act utilitarianism faces with fairness and individual liberty/fairness (including the risk of the 'tyranny of the majority'). (5)

• Act utilitarianism claims that we can determine (reasonably expect/predict that) whether actions are morally right on a case-by-case basis according to the principle of utility.

• The principle of utility states that actions are morally right if and only if they maximise utility for the greatest number

• However, this priority that is given to the ‘greatest number’ can limit individual liberty because it may mean that individuals cannot act as they wish, but must act according to a set of collectivist goals.

• Act utilitarianism also runs the risk of the tyranny of the majority, whereby the interests of a minority are disregarded in favour of the desire of the many.

• Many would argue that this is unfair and illiberal and that act utilitarianism should not be considered as a framework for a fair society where individual freedoms are protected.

Outline the problem act utilitarianism faces with calculation (including which beings to include). (5)

• Act utilitarianism claims that we should determine (reasonably expect/predict that) whether actions are morally right on a case-by-case basis.

• We can use algorithms such as Bentham’s felicific/hedonic/utility calculus to do this.

• However, some argue that Bentham’s felicific/hedonic/utility calculus is difficult to calculate.

• It requires us to predict the consequences of our actions.

• However, it is not clear how we would calculate the duration, fecundity, intensity and purity of the pleasure that our actions will lead to.

• These factors are not easily quantifiable.

• It is also not clear whether we consider the wants of animals and other beings who we cannot know the desires of but must consider equal to a human being.

• Therefore, act utilitarianism faces problems in calculation.

Explain the issue that utilitarianism faces with partiality.

• The principles of utility requires that utilitarians always consider the interest of the majority in order to maximise utility.

• The happiness of all people are considered equal, no individual’s happiness is more important than anyone else’s.

• However, for many people, this is not true.

• We prioritise the happiness of people important to us such as our friends and family.

• Maximising their happiness will not always be the same as what will make the majority happy.

• However, utilitarianism cannot take this into account because it is concerned only with what will make the majority the most happy.

• We have no justification to make them happier than a random person on the street.

Explain how utilitarianism ignores both the moral integrity and intentions of the individual. (5)

• As a consequentialist normative ethical theory, utilitarianism is unconcerned with the act itself or the intentions of moral agents when they choose to act.

• So long as the act produces the greatest happiness for the great number, it is morally right.

• However, many people do not feel this accounts entirely