Memory (without models)

2 ways to forget in STM defined

Decay - memory trace disappears if not rehearsed

Displacement - Limited capacity = old info pushes out new

Forgetting in LTM defined

Interference - 2 pieces of info conflict with each other, resulting in forgetting one or both or distortion. Happens when info is similar/learned close together.

Proactive interference

Old info interferes with the learning of new info

Retroactive interference

New info interferes with the remembering of old info

Underwood and Postman procedure and findings

Underwood and Postman (1960) -

• ppts divided into 2 groups, G1 learns a list of word pairs, then learned a second list where the 2nd word was different. They then recalled the 1st list.

• G2 only learned one list, and therefore performed better than G1

Cue dependent forgetting

When we specifically recall info due to an absence of memory cues

Encoding specificity principle

If a cue is to help you with recall, it must be present at encoding (learning) and at retrieval or else forgetting will occur

Context dependant forgetting

absence of context cues - external cue e.g location

State dependant forgetting

Absence of state cues - internal cue e.g mental state/mood

Godden and Baddeley procedure and findings

Godden and Baddeley (1975) -

• Sample: 18 deep sea divers

• asked to memorise and recall 36 unrelated words in 1 of 4 conditions

• C1 - learn + recall on land. C2 - learn on land, recall in water. C3 - learn in water, recall on land, C4 - learn + recall in water

• C1 + 4 were better by ~ 5 words

Carter and Cassaday procedure and findings

Carter and Cassaday (1998) - Antihistamine/placebo

• Sample of 100 ppl asked to learn 20 words on day 1 and recall on day 2 in one of 4 conditions

• C1: drug day 1+2, C2: drug day 1 placebo day 2, C3: placebo day 1 drug day 2, C3: placebo day 1+2

• C1 and 4 performed the best

Misleading information

Incorrect info given to the eyewitness usually after the event

Leading question

A question phrased in such a way as to suggest a certain answer

Loftus and Palmer procedure and findings

Loftus and Palmer (1974) - leading questions

• Ppts watched a video of a car crash and were asked how fast the cars were moving when they crashed

• used different adjectives (hit, smashed, collided etc.)

• Made contact was the lowest = 31.8mph, smashed was the highest = 40.8mph

FOLLOW UP -

• New ppts did experiment and a week later were asked about broken glass

• Some said there was however there was none

Response bias

Wording of a question has no effect on an eyewitnesses memory of an event, but influences the kind of answer given

Substitution bias

Wording of a question does affect eyewitness memory - it interferes with it’s original memory, distorting it’s accuracy

Yerkes-Dodson curve

Suggests that performance for a moderate task will increase with stress to an optimal point and then will decline

Johnson and Scott procedure and findings

Johnson and Scott (1976) - weapon focus

• ppts thought they were in a lab study waiting room when they overheard an argument

• 2 conditions: low anxiety = man leaves with pen and grease, high = man leaves with knife and blood

• ppts then had to pick out the man from 50 photos

FINDINGS

• 49% correct in low, 33% in high

• Proves the tunnel theory

Yuille and Cutshall procedure and findings

Yuille and Cutshall (1986) - real life shooting

• Sample: 13 ppl who witnessed a shooting in Canada

• Asked to self-report stress levels they felt at the time of the incident and interviewed 5 months after event

• Found little chance in accuracy, though details were less accurate (88% high stress, 75% low)

How Fisher created the cognitive interview

He observed police interviews in Florida, and saw that they asked lots of direct, closed questions. This led to inaccurate EWT’s.

2 versions of the cognitive interview

Enhanced cognitive interview (improved), modified cognitive interview (for children + ppl with learning disabilities).

4 stages to the CI

• Report everything

• Context reinstatement - recall the scene, how you were feeling etc.

• Recall in reverse order

• Recall from a changed perspective - describe the event from a different viewpoint