AICE Environmental Management Unit 2

2.1 Scientific Method

Hypothesis

a testable, attempted explanantion to the question.

What do you need to form a hypothesis? Key components?

-should be a statement, not a question.

-should state what is predicted, an explanntion of the observation.

-can be proven false after expermient.

What is the difference between an observation and a hypothesis?

Observation: uses senses to obtain info. of the natural world

Hypothesis: a testable idea or explanation that leads to a scientific investigation.

Independent Variable IV

factor that is changed

Dependent Variable DV

fcator that is measured/observed

Controlled Group

not changed/ serves as comparison

Control Variable

-not being tested/ stays the same between all groups

-adds validity

Manipulated Experiment

the researcher actively controls the IV

Natural Experiment

takes place when controlled experiments are not possible, and DV's are naturally occurring

Qualitative Data

-observed

-written descriptions, videos, photos, live observations

-Eg: appearance, behavior

Quantitative Data

-measured, numerical form

-Eg: size, time, height, mass

Which axis on a graph shows which variable?

X-axis: Independent Variable

Y-axis: Dependent Variable

Bar Graph

-a graph that uses vertical or horizontal bars to show comparisons among two or more items

-one variable is qualitative, other is quantitative

Scatter Plot

-explores associations between 2 variables

-usually looks for trends or associations

Pie Graph

-a graph that shows circles that are "sliced" apart to represent percentages of the total "pie" for particular groups or categories

-shows proportions of a whole

Histogram

-a graph of vertical bars representing the frequency distribution of a set of data.

-displays distributions of data

Line Graph

-a graph that uses line segments to show changes that occur over time

-shows change over period of time

Scientific Theory

a hypothesis that has been tested repetitively over time by many people and has not been disproven.

Scientific Law

describes what will happen in a given situation, typically written by a mathematical equation.

Peer Review

-when results are submitted to a scientific journal and other scientists read and critique the research.

-it is important because if a hypothesis survives the peer review, it can be incorporated into a theory.

2.2 Environmental Research in the context of Climate Change

Reliability

the extent to which an experiment, test or any measuring procedure yields the same results on repeated trials.

Validity

the degree to which a study accurately reflects or asseses specific concepts that the researcher is attmepting to measure.

External Validity

the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable.

Internal Validity

- the rigor with which the study was conducted

-the study's design

-the care taken to conduct measuements and decisions concerning what was and wasnt measuered.

-the extent to which researchers take into account alternative explanations for causal relationships.

Bias

-when the sample is not representative of the population or is inappororite for the questions asked.

-or, when the measurements are less accurate if equipment is not used porperly

Sampling Bias

if sample is not representative of the population or if it is inappropriate for the question asked.

(can make the data collected inconsistent and unreliable)

Measurement Bias

when the equipment is not used properly and the measurements are inaccurate.

(can make the data collected inconsistent and unreliable)

How do we remove sample and measurement bias from an experiment?

Scientists must follow certain rules to be as objective as possible.

Language Bias

when the person/organization sharing the info might be trying to persuade people that their view is correct, but may not present all the evidence or info that contradicts their viepoint.

Scientifically Proven

science does not seek to prove, but to disprove.

Emotional Appeal

conclusions that are not data based.

Strong Language

-scientific conclusions should only report what the data supports.

-words should be chosen carefully to avoid exaggeration.

Data Source Bias

in some situations, they need to promote special interests or make profits may lead to bias.

Eg: university research, corporate research, government research, etc.

Climate Change

a significant and lasting change in the distribution of global wether over timescales or decades to millions of years.

Why is historical data questioned? (in regard to climate change)

It's questioned since earlier data collected is considered inaccurate due to specific regions.

-evidence of climate change was found in geological deposits, coastal landforms, and ice sheets.

-CO2 levels are used to collect ancient data from sheets of ice.

How has bias been used to manipulate climate data?

Skeptics would replace unreliable data witht their own biased data by selective or misuse of data as well as lack of understanding.

Confirmation Bias

only uses data that shows the hypothesis is correct, ignoring any showing the opposite. It also casts doubt in the public, media, and politicians who do not understand the proper scientific method.

How has climate data been misused?

1.) Misrepresenting Data: focusing on a specific year in a data set.

2.) Cherry Picking Facts: when statistics are taken out of context/missing pertinent information, making it hard to have an informed rebuttal ready.

3.) Focusing on Weather: when skeptics dwell on weather patterns over the course of a few days to disprove climate change.

2.3 - 2.5 Collecting Environmental Data

Random Sampling

-sample points are selected using random numbers using a computer or grid.

-reduces bias as the sample is selected at random.

-good for smaller samples.

Systematic Sampling

-regular patterns are used to indentify sample points such as every third point.

-this is effective if no pattern is seen.

Open Frame Quadrats

-frames constructed from wood/metal; numbers counted within it.

-good for larger, easier to count species.

- BENEFITS: easy, quick, inexpensive

-LIMITS: could result in bias, miscalculation and unreliable data

Grid Quadrats

-subdividing the frame into smaller quadrats; can determine percent cover of species.

Point Quadrats

-T shaped frame with ten holes on the bar with a needle passing through

-whatever vegetation the pin hits is recorded

Pitfall Traps (passive)

-some type of container is submerged so the top is level with the surface

-organisms/insects walk into the container and cannot get out

LIMITS: predators may eat the sample, time consuming, can fill with water, difficult to use in urban areas.

BENEFITS: easy, inexpensive.

Sweep Nets (active)

-mounted nets on a pole

-used to collect insects and small animals

LIMITS: all insects are not equally catchable, time consuming, could damage plants.

BENEFITS: inexpensive, easy, not a lot of time/skill required, volunteers can perform.

Beating Trays

-light colored cloth acorss a square frame

-frame held under bush or shrub, insects fall onto cloth to be examined

LIMITS: flying insects may fly away, plants can be damaged, time of day can influence species type.

BENEFITS: easy, quick

Kick Sampling

-agitating stones and sediments in a river/stream with foot to dislodge organisms

-catch what comes out

LIMITS: small species may be missed, species stuck to rocks are missed, difficult in shallow water.

BENEFITS: quick, cheap

Light Traps (passive)

-any animal attracted to light can be measured

-uses light to attract, then trap them

LIMITS: night time temp/humidity will affect abundance of species, some insects are attacted to light at a short range (won't be attracted)

BENEFITS: sampling nocturnal easier, can be used in marine, helpful for ease of identification

Capture - Mark - Recapture

-live trap technique where individuals are trapped and marked allowing investigators to record specific info such as gender, weight, color. Then they are relased.

LIMITS: mark influences chnace of survivial, mark is not always easy to see, must be checked often

BENEFITS: no harm, done in remote locations

Pooters

-small jar used to collect insects

-2 tubes: one in mouth for suction and other hovers over insect

Interviews

-collection of data in a in depth conversation between researcher and respondent (open questions)

LIMITS: could be costly, quality based on interviewer, limited sample size

BENEFITS: face to face (more accurate)

Questionaires

-series of questions, collects data on social issues (mostly closed questions)

LIMITS: might have unanswered questions, diff interpretations of questions, hard to convey feelings

BENEFITS: inexpensive, fast results, information is comparable

Turbidity

-cloudiness or haziness of water due to sediments

-higher levels can have negative effect on aqualife since light is blocked

-a Seiche Disc can tets turbidity; it is lowered into water and uses alternating sections of black/white quadrants to test it.

LIMITS: susceptible to researcher bias

BENEFIT: easy to make comparisons

Lincoln Index

-used to calculate population size of an individual species.

population size = n1 x n2 / nm

N = population size

n1 = number captured in 1st sample

n2 = number captured in 2nd sample

m3 = number of individuals reoccupied in 2nd sample

Simpsons Index

-calculates estimate biodiversity looking at species and abundance

D = 1 - (Σ (n/N) squared)

Σ = sum of total

n = number of individuals of each type present in the sample

N = total number of all individuals of all types present in the sample

Percent Frequency

-number of quadrats in which the species is found / total number of quadrats

Percent Cover

-how much coverage a sample occupies within a quadrat using point quadrat

What are the abundance scales and what are they useful for?

ACFOR: Abundant, Common, Frequent, Occasional, Rare

DAFOR: Dominant, Abundant, Frequent, Occasional, Rare

-can be calculated using quadrats for faster qualitative data

BENEFITS: easy to use

LIMITS: researcher bias, large margin of error

What are the three types fo geospatial systems?

-GPS (global positioning systems)

-GIS (geographic information systems)

-RS (remote sensing)

GPS Global Positioning System

used to triangulate postitons for rescue, locate areas of research, and concern

Eg: satelites that help us navigate

GIS Geographic Information System

a database system which collects, organizes, stores, and analyzes physcial and cultural environments

RS Remote Sensing

the gathering of information about the earth using remote devices

Eg: satelites

Satellite Sensors

-a type of remote sensor attached to satellites

-use medium/high resolution imagery, thermal infrared data, radar, and laser tech

Eg: they can collect sea level rise, ozone, weather, changes in vegetation, etc.

Radio Tracking

-technique for monitoring wildlife

-a collar or device is attached to animals

-the tag uses VHF signal, satellites, or GPS

-scientists can track movement, breeding, and can learn about their feeding grounds

Computer Modelling

-use of computers to analyze, interpret, and make predictions based on significant amounts of data

-looks at larger issues

Crowd Sources

-when data can be collected from citizen scientists on a large scale

Big Data

-very large data sets

-when larger, more sophisticated machines are needed to analyze and store all the information collected

LIMITS: large complex system needed, expensive, data is collected in different ways

What are the 5 metrics used in Big Data?

-Volume: amount of data being gathered every second

-Value: how much use the data has

-Variety: more data looking for patterns from different areas

-Velocity: being able to process the data quickly while it is relevant

-Veracity: must be verifiable and add value