(Final Exam) Pt. 6 Demonstration and Verbal Instruction

What is Demonstration?

• The terms […] and […] are often used interchangeably with the term demonstration.

• Demonstrating how to do a skill typically involves […] observation on the part of the learner.

• Question of interest.

• When is demonstration a more effective instructional strategy than some other way to give information about how to perform a skill?

• modeling and observational learning

• visual

What Does the Observer Perceive from a Demonstration?

• This question is important to answer to determine when to use demonstration.

• Answer: Observer perceives and uses the invariant relative motions that characterize the […].

• Two types of research support this view.

  • Investigation of the […] perception of motion.

  • Investigation of the influence of […] on learning a complex skill

• coordinated movement pattern

• visual

• demonstration

What Information Should Be Conveyed by a Demonstration?

• The answer is likely specific to [..] and […] characteristics.

• Coordination changes have been documented when learners view […] video demonstrations.

• Demonstrating movement effects might be as effective in inducing coordination changes as providing […] information in a demonstration.

• It is important to consider potential differences in how movement is […] versus how it is […] when determining the most appropriate information to provide to learners in a demonstration.

• task and learner

• full-body

• end-point

• perceived (recognized)

• controlled

The Influence of Skill Characteristics

• Influence of demonstration on skill acquisition depends on […] of the skill being learned.

• The most important characteristic that determines whether a demonstration will be beneficial is whether the skill being learned requires the acquisition of a [….].

• characteristics

• new pattern of coordination

Neural Basis for Observational Learning

• […] neurons in the brain.

• Specific class of […] neurons in the brain.

• Evidence from fMRI-based research.

  • Several studies show activation in inferior frontal gyrus during observation.

  • Zentgraf et al.’s (2005) study with gymnasts.

    • Observation plus visualization generated activity in the supplementary motor area (SMA) of the cortex.

    • Observation only activated […] when the participants were asked to judge the movements’ accuracy and consistency.

• Other studies have documented activity in […] and […] temporal cortex during observation.

• Mirror

• visuomotor

• pre-SMA

• parietal and lateral

Observing Skilled Demonstrations

• Guiding principle: Demonstrator should perform the skill […]

  • Why?

    • If the observer perceives and uses information related to […] movement patterns, it is logical to expect the quality of performance resulting from observing a demonstration to be related to the quality of the demonstration.

    • The observer tries to imitate […] strategies.

• “correctly.”

• invariant

• successful

Can Novices Benefit from Observing Other Novices?

• Research shows that beginners can benefit from […] other beginners practice a skill.

• Ways to effectively implement this:

• By […] students, athletes, or clients in situations where one of the pairs performs the skill while the other observes.

• By having a […]observe a novice using[…] via video replay.

• Why to use such demonstration?

  • Discourages imitation of a skilled model’s performance and encourages the observer to engage in more active problem solving.

• observing

• pairing

• novice

• self-observation feedback

Timing and Frequency of Demonstrating a Skill

• [….] view on learning has implications for demonstrating a skill.

  • Demonstration should precede practice.

  • Instructor should continue demonstrating during practice as frequently as necessary.

• A twist on the way in which demonstrations are […] has been to allow learners to self-select when they receive demonstrations.

  • Interestingly, when learners are given this opportunity, they tend to request demonstrations very […].

• Gentile’s

• scheduled

• infrequently

Results of the Experiment by Weeks and Anderson (2002)

Auditory Modeling

• There are certain skills for which […] demonstration is less effective for learning than other forms of demonstration.

• Here comes the role of Auditory Modeling into play!

• […] Modeling is particularly effective when the goal is to move within a certain movement time or in a certain rhythm.

• visual

• Auditory

How Does Observing Demonstrations Influence Learning?

• Two primary theories.

  • […] theory.

    • Based on Bandura’s (1986) theory of modeling and social learning.

    • Observed movements are translated into a symbolic memory code that forms the basis that is used to guide performance.

• […] of modeling.

  • J. J. Gibson’s (1966, 1979) view of visual perception

  • The visual system “picks up” from the model salient information that effectively constrains the body and limbs to act in specific ways.

• Cognitive mediation

• Dynamic view

Potential Downsides to Demonstration

• Unlikely that there’s an […] movement form that is appropriate for all learners.

• Providing learners with other people’s solutions for solving movement problems via […]can subvert the problem solving.

• Watching skilled performers can foster a potentially […] illusion of skill acquisition that does not coincide with the observer’s capability.

• “ideal”

• demonstrations

• dangerous

Verbal instructions and Cues

• […] instructions rank with demonstration as a commonly used means of communicating to people how to perform motor skills.

• Important factors to consider while developing effective verbal instruction.

  • […] of instructions and memory and attention limits.

  • Focusing on movement […] rather than […] required by the skill.

• Verbal

• Quantity

• outcomes

• movements

Verbal Instructions and Cues

• Important factors to consider while developing effective verbal instruction.

  • Using verbal […] where possible.

    • Analogies may encourage implicit learning.

• Focusing attention on […] environmental context regulatory conditions.

  • Relates to a […] goal of the initial stage of learning, accordingly to Gentile’s learning stages model.

• analogies

• invariant

• critical

Verbal Instructions and Cues

• Give verbal instructions that influence goal achievement strategies.

  • […].

  • Accuracy.

  • Speed and accuracy.

• Be careful of ironic effects.

  • There is an […] tendency to perform actions you are intentionally trying to avoid.

Example: “Don’t miss” can make the learner more likely to miss.

• Speed

• unintentional

Verbal Cues

• Verbal cues should be […], […] phrases that:

  • Direct the performer’s attention to […] conditions in the environmental context.

  • Prompt key movement components of skills.

• […] can be used in several different ways in skill learning settings.

• short, concise

• regulatory

• Verbal cues