Communication theories

Craig's Rhetorical Tradition

Communication is the practical art of discourse and persuasion. Apply: analyze how speakers persuade audiences and construct arguments.

Craig's Rhetorical Tradition

Persuasion (influencing others); Public Address (speaking to audiences); Argument (reasoning process); Audience (target of persuasion); Rhetoric (art of effective communication)

Craig's Semiotic Tradition

Sign (unit of meaning); Signifier (form of sign); Signified (concept behind sign); Code (system of interpretation); Meaning (socially constructed understanding)

Craig's Phenomenological Tradition

Communication is dialogue and direct experience of others. Apply: explain misunderstandings caused by different lived experiences.

Craig's Phenomenological Tradition

Dialogue (genuine interaction); Experience (subjective reality); Authenticity (being genuine); Otherness (recognizing others' perspectives)

Craig's Cybernetic Tradition

Communication is information processing within systems. Apply: analyze feedback loops and communication flow.

Craig's Cybernetic Tradition

System (interconnected elements); Feedback (response correcting behavior); Information (transmitted content); Noise (distortion)

Craig's Sociopsychological Tradition

Communication influences attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. Apply: explain persuasion and interpersonal influence.

Craig's Sociopsychological Tradition

Attitude (evaluation of something); Perception (interpretation of reality); Influence (changing others); Behavior (observable action)

Craig's Sociocultural Tradition

Communication creates and maintains social reality. Apply: explain how language shapes culture and identities.

Craig's Sociocultural Tradition

Culture (shared meanings); Social Reality (constructed world); Norms (expected behavior); Identity (social self)

Craig's Critical Tradition

Communication reflects power, inequality, and ideology. Apply: identify whose interests are served and who is excluded.

Craig's Critical Tradition

Power (ability to influence); Ideology (system of beliefs); Domination (unequal control); Emancipation (freedom from oppression)

Politeness Theory

People manage face and use politeness strategies to reduce face-threatening acts. Apply: diagnose face threats and redesign communication using politeness strategies.

Politeness Theory

Face (public self-image); Positive Face (need for approval); Negative Face (need for autonomy); FTA (threat to face); Bald On-Record (direct request); Positive Politeness (show closeness); Negative Politeness (respect freedom); Off-Record (indirect hint)

Social Exchange Theory

Relationships are evaluated through rewards and costs. People stay when outcomes are favorable. Apply: explain satisfaction or dissatisfaction in relationships.

Social Exchange Theory

Rewards (benefits gained); Costs (effort and sacrifice); Outcomes (rewards minus costs); CL (expected standard); CLalt (quality of alternatives)

Interdependence Theory

People's outcomes are interconnected. Commitment depends on satisfaction, investments, and alternatives. Apply: explain dependence and relationship stability.

Interdependence Theory

Satisfaction (relationship evaluation); Investments (resources invested); Alternatives (other options); Dependence (need for relationship); Commitment (desire to stay); Mutual Dependence (both affect outcomes)

Equity Theory

People seek fairness between contributions and rewards. Inequality creates dissatisfaction. Apply: explain resentment and attempts to restore fairness.

Equity Theory

Inputs (what you contribute); Outcomes (what you receive); Equity (fair balance); Under-Benefit (giving more than receiving); Over-Benefit (receiving more than giving); Fairness (perceived justice)

Expectancy Violations Theory

Expectations guide communication. Violations attract attention and are evaluated positively or negatively. Apply: explain reactions to unexpected behavior.

Expectancy Violations Theory

Expectancy (expected behavior); Violation (unexpected behavior); Arousal (heightened attention); Violation Valence (evaluation of violation); Communicator Reward Value (overall attractiveness or credibility)

Symbolic Interactionism

People act based on meanings created through social interaction. Identity develops through communication. Apply: explain conflicts caused by different interpretations.

Symbolic Interactionism

Meaning (shared understanding); Social Interaction (source of meaning); Interpretation (making sense of symbols); I (spontaneous self); Me (social self); Generalized Other (society's expectations); Looking-Glass Self (seeing yourself through others)

Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM)

People co-create social reality through communication. Meaning depends on different levels of context. Apply: identify communication patterns and misunderstandings.

Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM)

Hierarchy of Contexts (levels of meaning); Constitutive Rules (what something means); Regulative Rules (how to act); Logical Force (what drives action); URP (unwanted repetitive pattern)

Groupthink

Highly cohesive groups may prioritize agreement over critical thinking, leading to poor decisions. Apply: identify symptoms and propose remedies.

Groupthink

Illusion of Invulnerability (overconfidence); Collective Rationalization (ignoring warnings); Self-Censorship (hiding doubts); Illusion of Unanimity (everyone seems to agree); Pressure on Dissenters (punishing disagreement); Mindguards (blocking criticism)

Symbolic Convergence Theory

Group identity develops through shared stories and fantasies. Apply: explain how teams and communities create a common vision.

Symbolic Convergence Theory

Fantasy Theme (shared story); Chaining Out (story spreads through group); Rhetorical Vision (shared worldview); Group Identity (sense of "we")

Functional Theory of Group Decision Making

Good decisions require effective communication functions. Apply: identify which decision-making step is missing.

Functional Theory of Group Decision Making

Problem Analysis (understand issue); Goal Setting (define criteria); Alternative Generation (create options); Evaluation of Consequences (compare outcomes); Counteractive Communication (challenge weak reasoning)

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Persuasion occurs through central or peripheral routes depending on motivation and ability. Apply: match persuasion strategy to audience involvement.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Central Route (careful processing); Peripheral Route (simple cues); Motivation (desire to think); Ability (capacity to think); Elaboration (amount of thinking); Argument Quality (strength of evidence); Peripheral Cue (shortcut signal)

Narrative Paradigm

Humans are storytellers and evaluate messages through stories rather than logic alone. Apply: explain why stories persuade audiences.

Narrative Paradigm

Narrative Rationality (evaluating stories); Coherence (story consistency); Fidelity (story truthfulness); Logic of Good Reasons (values within story)

Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

Behavior is driven by intentions, which depend on attitudes, social norms, and perceived control. Apply: explain why behavior changes or fails to change.

Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

Attitude (evaluation of behavior); Subjective Norms (social pressure); Perceived Behavioral Control (sense of ability); Intention (willingness to act); Behavior (actual action)

Agenda-Setting

Media influence what people think about by making issues more visible and important. Apply: explain public attention to certain topics.

Agenda-Setting

Salience (importance of issue); Public Agenda (public priorities); Media Agenda (media priorities); First-Level Agenda Setting (issue importance); Second-Level Agenda Setting (attribute importance); Need for Orientation (desire for guidance)

Framing

The way information is presented shapes interpretation and evaluation. Apply: analyze how different frames produce different meanings.

Framing

Frame (interpretive lens); Salience (highlighting aspects); Problem Definition (what is happening); Causal Interpretation (why it happened); Moral Evaluation (judgment); Remedy (proposed solution)

Cultivation Theory

Long-term media exposure shapes perceptions of social reality. Apply: explain gradual worldview changes.

Cultivation Theory

Heavy Viewers (high media exposure); Mean World Syndrome (world seems dangerous); Mainstreaming (shared perceptions); Resonance (media matches real experience)

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Audiences actively choose media to satisfy needs. Apply: explain media preferences and platform choice.

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Active Audience (goal-oriented users); Information (learning); Identity (self-understanding); Social Integration (connecting with others); Entertainment (enjoyment); Gratifications Sought (expected benefits); Gratifications Obtained (received benefits)

Three Approaches to Technology

The relationship between technology and society can be explained in different ways. Apply: analyze debates about technological influence.

Three Approaches to Technology

Technological Determinism (technology shapes society); Social Construction of Technology (society shapes technology); Mutual Shaping (both influence each other); Interpretive Flexibility (different meanings); Affordances (action possibilities); Domestication (technology becomes routine)

Media Richness Theory

Different media vary in richness and should match communication tasks. Apply: diagnose media-task mismatches.

Media Richness Theory

Media Richness (capacity to convey meaning); Equivocality (ambiguity); Feedback Speed (response time); Multiple Cues (verbal and nonverbal signals); Language Variety (different forms of expression); Personal Focus (human connection)

Hyperpersonal Model

Online communication can become more intimate than face-to-face interaction. Apply: explain idealization and online closeness.

Hyperpersonal Model

Selective Self-Presentation (carefully managed image); Idealization (positive assumptions); Asynchronous Communication (delayed messaging); Feedback Loop (mutual reinforcement)

Social Presence Theory

Media differ in the feeling of another person's presence. Apply: explain why some channels feel warmer or more personal.

Social Presence Theory

Social Presence (sense of human connection); Cues Filtered Out (missing nonverbal signals); Interpersonal Warmth (feeling of closeness)

Signaling Theory

People rely on signals to judge trustworthiness when information is incomplete. Apply: explain credibility and reputation.

Signaling Theory

Information Asymmetry (unequal knowledge); Signal (indicator of quality); Costly Signal (hard to fake); Credibility (believability); Trust (confidence in reliability)

Four Models of PR

Organizations communicate with publics in different ways, from publicity to dialogue. Apply: identify which model is being used.

Four Models of PR

Press Agentry (publicity and attention); Public Information (one-way information); Two-Way Asymmetrical (persuasion through research); Two-Way Symmetrical (mutual understanding)

Excellence Theory

PR is most effective when it is strategic, symmetrical, and part of management. Apply: explain how communication creates organizational effectiveness.

Excellence Theory

Strategic Management (communication in decision-making); Dominant Coalition (top leadership); Two-Way Symmetry (balanced dialogue); Relationship Building (long-term trust)

Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS)

People become active when they recognize problems and believe they can act. Apply: explain public engagement with issues.

Situational Theory of Problem Solving (STOPS)

Problem Recognition (seeing an issue); Constraint Recognition (perceived obstacles); Involvement Recognition (personal relevance); Referent Criterion (prior knowledge); Active Public (takes action); Aware Public (knows issue); Latent Public (affected but unaware)

Relationship Management Theory

The goal of PR is building strong relationships between organizations and publics. Apply: evaluate relationship quality.

Relationship Management Theory

Trust (confidence); Commitment (long-term connection); Satisfaction (positive evaluation); Control Mutuality (shared influence); Communal Relationship (concern for others); Exchange Relationship (benefits exchanged)

Dialogic Theory

Ethical communication is based on genuine dialogue rather than one-way persuasion. Apply: design a dialogic communication strategy.

Dialogic Theory

Mutuality (partnership); Propinquity (engagement in process); Empathy (understanding others); Risk (openness to criticism); Commitment (dedication to dialogue); Dialogic Loop (feedback and response)

Fully Functioning Society Theory

PR contributes to society by facilitating dialogue and balancing interests. Apply: evaluate communication in terms of public good.

Fully Functioning Society Theory

Common Good (benefit for society); Shared Meaning (mutual understanding); Legitimacy (social acceptance); Marketplace of Ideas (competing viewpoints); Dialogue (open communication)

Critical Theory

Communication is connected to power, ideology, domination, and emancipation. Apply: identify who benefits and who is excluded.

Critical Theory

Power (ability to shape reality); Ideology (system of beliefs); Hegemony (consent to domination); Culture Industry (mass-produced culture); Public Sphere (space for debate); Emancipation (freedom from domination)

Structuralism

Meaning comes from systems of signs and differences, not isolated words or images. Apply: identify hidden structures and oppositions.

Structuralism

Sign (unit of meaning); Signifier (form of sign); Signified (concept behind sign); Binary Opposition (paired contrast); Code (rules of interpretation); Deep Structure (hidden pattern); Langue (language system); Parole (individual use)

Post-Structuralism

Meaning is unstable, contested, and connected to power. Apply: deconstruct dominant interpretations and reveal alternative meanings.

Post-Structuralism

Deconstruction (question oppositions); Différance (meaning through difference and delay); Discourse (system of meaning); Power/Knowledge (truth linked to power); Death of the Author (meaning not controlled by creator); Polysemy (multiple meanings)

Post-Colonialism

Colonial power continues through representation, language, knowledge, and global hierarchies. Apply: analyze stereotypes and unequal representation.

Post-Colonialism

Orientalism (stereotyping the East); Othering (creating outsiders); Subaltern (excluded voices); Hybridity (mixed identities); Mimicry (imitating dominant culture); Eurocentrism (Western-centered worldview)