AP Human Geography Unit 6 Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes

Site Factors

The physical characteristics of a place that influence its development, such as land, labor, and capital. Site factors determine where industries and cities locate. They include natural resources, terrain, and climate. Strong site factors attract economic activity.

Situation Factors

A place’s location relative to other places, including trade routes and transportation networks. Situation affects accessibility and economic connections. Cities with strong situation advantages grow faster. It shapes regional importance.

Economic Development

The process of improving economic well-being through industry, infrastructure, and services. Higher development increases income, education, and quality of life. Cities drive economic development. It shapes global inequality.

Urban Hearth

The earliest regions where cities first developed. Urban hearths include Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley, and the Indus Valley. These areas pioneered urban planning and social organization. They influenced later urban development.

Megacities

Cities with populations over 10 million. They are major economic and cultural centers. Megacities face challenges like congestion, pollution, and inequality. They shape global urbanization trends.

Metacities

Extremely large cities with populations over 20 million. They experience intense growth and strain on infrastructure. Metacities highlight rapid urbanization in developing regions. They represent the largest urban forms.

Suburbanization

The movement of people from cities to surrounding suburbs. It is driven by transportation improvements and desire for space. Suburbanization reshapes metropolitan areas. It contributes to sprawl.

Sprawl

The spread of low-density development outward from urban centers. Sprawl increases car dependency and land consumption. It strains infrastructure and the environment. It is common in rapidly growing cities.

Decentralization

The movement of people, businesses, and services away from the urban core. It reduces congestion but weakens downtown areas. Decentralization creates suburban growth. It reshapes urban structure.

Edge Cities

Large commercial and business districts located on the outskirts of major cities. They contain offices, shopping centers, and entertainment. Edge cities form due to suburban growth. They shift economic activity away from downtowns.

Exurbs

Low-density communities beyond the suburbs. Exurbs attract people seeking rural lifestyles with urban access. They increase commuting distances. Exurbs contribute to metropolitan expansion.

Boomburbs

Rapidly growing suburban cities with populations over 100,000. They grow faster than traditional suburbs. Boomburbs have urban characteristics but lack a dense downtown. They reflect modern suburban development.

World Cities

Cities with global influence in finance, culture, and politics. Examples include New York, London, and Tokyo. World cities shape global networks. They attract multinational corporations and migrants.

Range

The maximum distance people are willing to travel for a service. Higher-order services have larger ranges. Range helps determine market areas. It is central to central place theory.

Threshold

The minimum population needed to support a service. Higher-order services require larger thresholds. Threshold determines where businesses locate. It shapes urban hierarchies.

Infilling

The development of vacant or underused land within existing urban areas. Infilling increases density and reduces sprawl. It revitalizes neighborhoods. It supports sustainable growth.

Cycles of Development

The stages cities go through, including growth, decline, and revitalization. These cycles reflect economic and demographic changes. They shape urban landscapes. Cities constantly evolve through these cycles.

Infrastructure

The basic systems needed for a city to function, such as transportation, water, and electricity. Strong infrastructure supports economic growth. Poor infrastructure limits development. It is essential for urban life.

Mixed Land Use

Development that combines residential, commercial, and recreational spaces. Mixed land use increases walkability and reduces car dependency. It creates vibrant neighborhoods. It supports sustainable urban planning.

Walkability

The ease with which people can walk to services and destinations. Walkable areas improve health and reduce traffic. They support vibrant communities. Walkability is a key goal of modern planning.

Transportation-Oriented Development

Development built around public transit stations. It increases density and reduces car use. TOD supports sustainable growth. It creates accessible urban environments.

Smart-Growth Policies

Planning strategies that promote sustainable, compact, and efficient development. Smart growth reduces sprawl and protects natural resources. It encourages walkability and mixed land use. It improves quality of life.

New Urbanism

A planning movement promoting walkable, mixed-use, and community-oriented neighborhoods. It reduces sprawl and car dependency. New urbanism creates human-scaled environments. It influences modern urban design.

Greenbelts

Areas of protected open land surrounding cities. Greenbelts limit sprawl and preserve nature. They encourage urban density. They support environmental sustainability.

Slow-Growth Cities

Cities that adopt policies to limit rapid expansion. Slow-growth strategies protect resources and infrastructure. They improve quality of life. They reduce negative effects of sprawl.

De Facto Segregation

Segregation that occurs through social and economic patterns rather than laws. It results from housing markets, income inequality, and historical practices. De facto segregation shapes neighborhood demographics. It affects access to resources.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data used to measure patterns and trends. Examples include census statistics and economic indicators. Quantitative data supports objective analysis. It is essential in urban planning.

Census Tract

Small geographic areas used for census data collection. They contain about 4,000 people. Census tracts help analyze demographic patterns. They support planning and policy decisions.

Census Block

The smallest geographic unit used by the census. Blocks can contain a few homes or a single city block. They provide detailed demographic data. They support precise spatial analysis.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive data based on observations, interviews, or narratives. It provides insight into experiences and perceptions. Qualitative data complements quantitative data. It helps explain social patterns.

Redlining

A discriminatory practice where banks deny loans to certain neighborhoods based on race. Redlining created long-term inequality. It shaped urban segregation. Its effects persist today.

Blockbusting

When real estate agents convince homeowners to sell cheaply by exploiting racial fears. They then resell homes at higher prices. Blockbusting accelerated white flight. It contributed to segregation.

Criminalization

Policies that disproportionately target certain communities, often based on race or income. Criminalization affects housing, employment, and mobility. It reinforces inequality. It shapes urban social patterns.

Environmental Injustice

The unequal exposure of communities to environmental hazards. Low-income and minority neighborhoods face higher pollution and fewer green spaces. Environmental injustice affects health and quality of life. It reflects systemic inequality.

Disamenity Zones

Areas lacking basic services and infrastructure. They often contain high poverty and informal settlements. Disamenity zones form due to neglect and inequality. They highlight urban disparities.

Zones of Abandonment

Areas where buildings and infrastructure have been deserted. They result from economic decline and population loss. These zones attract crime and disinvestment. They challenge urban revitalization.

Squatter Settlements

Informal housing areas built without legal permission. They lack basic services like water and electricity. Squatter settlements form due to rapid urbanization and housing shortages. They reflect inequality in developing cities.

Inclusionary Zoning

Policies requiring developers to include affordable housing in new projects. It promotes economic diversity. Inclusionary zoning reduces segregation. It increases access to housing.

Urban Renewal

Government-led redevelopment of deteriorated urban areas. It aims to improve housing and infrastructure. Urban renewal can displace residents. It reshapes city landscapes.

Gentrification

The transformation of low-income neighborhoods through investment and new residents. It increases property values and revitalizes areas. Gentrification often displaces long-term residents. It creates social and economic tension.

Micropolitan Statistical Area

An urban area with a core population between 10,000 and 50,000. It includes surrounding counties linked by commuting. Micropolitan areas support regional economies. They bridge rural and urban spaces.

Metropolitan Statistical Area

A region with a core city of at least 50,000 people and surrounding areas tied by commuting. MSAs reflect economic and social connections. They guide federal funding and planning. They define major urban regions.

Combined Statistical Area

Two or more metropolitan or micropolitan areas linked by strong economic ties. CSAs reflect large regional networks. They show how cities and suburbs interact. They support regional planning.

City

A densely populated urban area with government, services, and economic activity. Cities serve as cultural and economic hubs. They attract migration and investment. They shape regional development.

City-State

A sovereign city that controls surrounding territory. City-states were common in ancient civilizations. They combine political and economic power. Modern examples include Singapore.

Municipal Government

The local government responsible for city services and regulations. It manages zoning, transportation, and public safety. Municipal governments shape urban development. They respond to community needs.

Annexation

The process of adding land to a city’s boundaries. Annexation expands tax bases and services. It supports urban growth. It can cause political conflict.

Suburban Sprawl

The spread of low-density suburbs outward from cities. It increases car dependency and land consumption. Sprawl strains infrastructure and the environment. It shapes modern metropolitan areas.

Urban Sustainability

Strategies to create environmentally friendly, economically strong, and socially equitable cities. Sustainable cities reduce pollution and conserve resources. They promote walkability and green spaces. Urban sustainability improves quality of life.

Ecological Footprint

The amount of land and resources needed to support a population’s lifestyle. Large footprints indicate high consumption. Reducing footprints supports sustainability. It measures environmental impact.

Brownfields

Abandoned industrial sites contaminated by pollution. Brownfields pose environmental and health risks. Redevelopment requires cleanup. They offer opportunities for urban revitalization.

Urban Growth Boundaries

Limits placed on urban expansion to protect rural land. They reduce sprawl and encourage infill development. Growth boundaries support sustainability. They shape city planning.

Farmland Protection Services

Policies that preserve agricultural land from development. They support local food systems and rural economies. Farmland protection prevents sprawl. It maintains open space and environmental health.