Unit 4: Social Psych + Personality

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.

explanatory style

a person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific

locus of control

A belief about the amount of control a person has over situations in their life.

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

self-serving bias

the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation/external causes and blame the actions of others on their personalities/internal causes

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.

attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people's thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

door-in-the-face phenomenon

tendency for people who won't agree to a large task, but then agree when a smaller request is made

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts, or our actions and attitudes, are inconsistent

self-justification

the need to rationalize one's attitude and behavior

norms

understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior.

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.

obedience

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious

ingroup

"us"—people with whom we share a common identity.

outgroup

"them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

ethnocentrism

tendency to view one's own culture and group as superior to all other cultures and groups

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

outgroup homogeneity bias

perception that out-group members are similar in their attitudes, personality, and/or appearance

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship.

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

halo effect

the tendency to draw a general positive impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help.

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

free association

a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

defense mechanisms

the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

repression

Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious.

regression

defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety reverts to a pattern of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development

rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

projection

defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

denial

defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

displacement

defense mechanism that shifts aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

reaction formation

defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

sublimation

Defense mechanism by which people redirect socially unacceptable impulses toward acceptable goals.

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

self-actualization

the process by which people achieve their full potential

actualizing tendency

According to Rogers, the drive of every organism to fulfill its biological potential and become what it is inherently capable of becoming

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

trait theory

A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions

Big Five Model

personality trait model that includes extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

self-efficacy

One's belief in their own ability.

self-esteem

how much you value, respect, and feel confident about yourself

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

instinct theory

A view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses.

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

self-determination theory

the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

incentive theory

explains motivation as the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments

overjustification effect

The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

physiological needs

those relating to the basic biological necessities of life: food, drink, rest, and shelter

homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

optimal arousal theory

A theory of motivation stating that people are motivated to behave in ways that maintain what is, for them, an optimal level of arousal

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

approach-approach conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose between two desirable goals

avoidance-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose between two undesirable goals

approach-avoidance conflict

conflict occurring when a person must choose or not choose a goal that has both positive and negative aspects

sensation-seeking theory

A theory that proposes that one's level of need for varied or novel experiences is the basis of motivation

ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

leptin

hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

emotions

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

universal facial expressions

Distinct displayed emotions that are recognizable across cultures: disgust, sadness, happiness, fear, anger and surprise.

display rules

culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display