Psychology- gender

Gender roles

A shared set of expectations held within a society or culture about acceptable behaviour for men and women

Culture

Values, beliefs and patterns of behaviour shared by a group of people

Media

Methods of communication

Identification

The process where a child attaches to someone who possesses qualities the child sees as desirable leading to the children modelling behaviour they observe

Vicarious reinforcement

If the consequence of another persons behaviour is favourable it’s more likely to be imitated whereas if the consequences are unfavourable it’s unlikely to be imitated

What are the two actions modelling describes

1. The precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer

2. Learning from the observers perspective

Direct reinforcement

The process whereby a child is praised or encouraged for displaying gender appropriate behaviour

Differential reinforcement

The way in which children are encouraged to show distinct gendered behaviour

identification

When a child selects an adult to imitate because the adult possesses a quality they admire or wish to posses

What are the 4 mediational processes

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Motivation

4. Motor reproduction

explain research support as a strength of SLT of gender

Key principles are supported by evidence for example Smith and Lloyd who studied babies dressing by dressing them in boys clothes and girls clothes irrespective of their sex , babies assumed to be a boy were more likely to be handed a hammer-shaped rattle. This suggests that gender-appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age through differential reinforcement. This evidence supports the key principles of SLT

What’s a counterpoint to research support for SLT explanations of gender

Differential reinforcement may not be the cause of gender differences in behaviour, adults may be responding to innate gender differences that already exist, boys may be encouraged to be more active during play because they’re naturally more active due to the hormones they have. Therefore social learning theory is only part of the explanation into how children acquire gender-related behaviours

Explain cultural changes as a strength of the SLT explanation of gender

Social learning theory can help explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour. when explaining androgyny there’s a less clear-cut distinction between masculine and feminising behaviour and there’s no corresponding biological change instead there’s been a shift in societal expectations and cultural norms. This shows that social learning is one approach that can explain cultural changes in gender behaviour

How is no developmental sequence a limitation of the SLT explanation of gender

SLT doesnt provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age, it implies that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age, it seems illogical that 2 year olds can learn in the same way as 9 year olds. Thus conflicts with Kohlbergs theory which states that children don’t become active in gender development until they reach the gender constancy stage.

Androgyny

Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics within personality

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)

A systejatic measure of androgyny using a 7 point rating scale of 60 traits

When was the BSRI created

1974

What’s a benefit of androgyny

high levels of androgyny are associated with psychological wellbeing because it allows you to adapt to a range of situations

What’s the reliability of the BSRI

The BSRI has high test-retest reliability as investigated in a follow up study a month later

Explain the temporal validity of the BSRI

The BSRI was created over 40 years ago and therefore gender stereotypical behaviours have changed significantly. Therefore the BSRI is both outdated and culturally relative since it was devised in the US

Chromosomes

Carry information in the form of genes within the nucleus, the 23rd pair determine sex

Hormone

chemical messengers carried in the blood which are secreted from glands and act on target organs

Testosterone

An androgen produced mainly in the testes associated with aggressiveness

Oestrogen

The primary female hormone which regulates the female menstrual cycle and reproductive system

Oxytocin

A hormone which causes uterine contractions during labour and stimulates lactation

Genes

Short sections of DNA which determine the characteristics of organisms

What’s the chromosomal structure for females

XX

What’s the chromosomal structure for males

XY

How is biological sex determined during fertilisation

By the sperm which fertilises the egg (whether it carries an X or Y chromosome)

What gene is carried by sperm with a Y chromosome

SRY gene (sex-determining region Y)

What does the SRY gene do

Stimulates the release of androgens

How do hormones influence gender development

They stimulate foetal brain development prenatal and during puberty trigger the development of secondary sexual characteristics

What’s CAH

A genetic disorder causing high prenatal levels of androgens

What’s a limitation of biological explanations of gender

It’s reductionist because it reduces gender to the level of chromosomes and hormones and therefore may underemphasise the importance of other factors for example cognitive factors

Wang (2000)

Gave over 200 hypogonadal men (men with low levels of testosterone) testosterone therapy for 180 days and found it led to improved sexual function, mood and muscle strength , this demonstrates the direct link between testosterone and gender development.

O’Connor (2004)

Double blind study where healthy young men were given testosterone, he found no significant increases in interactional or non-interactional components of sexual behaviour or aggressive behaviour. This suggests that in normal adults additional testosterone has no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour

Atypical chromosome pattern

Any sex chromosome pattern which deviates from the usual XX/XY formation

Klinefelters syndrome

a genetic condition affecting males where they have an additional X chromosome

Turner’s syndrome

A genetic disorder affecting females where they are missing an X chromosome

How many people does klinefelters disorder affect

1 in 600 males

Physical characteristics of klinefelters disorder

Breast development, long, gangly limbs, reduced body hair and lack of coordination

Psychological symptoms of klinefelters disorder

Poorly developed language/reading skills, shy, lacking interest in sexual activity and poor memory/problem-solving skills

How many people does Turner’s syndrome affect

1 in 5000 females

Physical symptoms of Turner’s syndrome

Lack of a menstrual cycle, broad shield chest, webbed neck, low set ears

Psychological symptoms of Turner’s syndrome

Higher than average reading ability, lower performance on spatial, visual, memory and maths tasks and social immaturity

How does research into atypical chromosome conditions contribute to the nature-nurture debate

It can be logically inferred that behavioural differences between individuals with atypical chromosome conditions and healthy individuals have a biological basis therefore supporting the nature side of the nature-nurture debate

What’s the real-world application of research into atypical chromosome conditions

It allows earlier and more accurate diagnosis and therefore allows individuals to manage their conditions better

How is sampling issue a limitation of research into atypical chromosome conditions

Usually only people with the most severe symptoms of the disorder are identified and thus distorts the picture of typical symptoms, realistically many people with these conditions don’t experience significant symptoms and are highly successful in many aspects of their life

Describe gender identity stage

Children recognise whether they’re a boy or girl but they don’t see gender as fixed

Describe gender stability stage

Children understand that their own gender is fixed (remains constant over time) but cannot apply this to other people

Describe gender constancy

Children recognise that gender remains constant across time and situations for them and for others

List the stages of gender development according to Kohlberg

Gender identity, gender stability and gender constancy

At what age does gender identity occur (according to kohlberg)

2 years old

At what age does gender stability occur (according to Kohlberg)

4 years old

At what age does gender constancy occur (according to Kohlberg)

6/7 years old

What does Kohlberg suggest influencers gender development

Biological maturation

Describe research support for Kohlbergs theory of gender development

Damon studied children by telling them a story about a boy who liked playing with dolls, children aged 4 said it was fine for him to be playing with dolls but by 6 commented that it was wrong for him to behave in this way. This shows that by 6 children had gone beyond understanding typical behaviour for boys and girls but developed gender stereotypes

Whats counter research for Kohlbergs theory of gender development

Bandura and Bussey found that children as young as 4 felt good about playing with gender-appropriate toys and bad about doing the opposite, this contradicts Kohlbergs theory and suggests that children begin absorbing gender-appropriate information as soon as they identify as a boy or girl

What are gender schema

An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience which guide stereotypes of gender-appropriate behaviour

Who came up with gender schema theory

Martin and Halverson

Schema

Mental constructs that develop through experience

At what age does gender identity gender schema begin to develop

2-3 years old

How do children’s gender schema differ between girls and boys

Children have a better understanding of the schema appropriate to their own gender (the ingroup) as they pay more attention to information relevant to their gender

How does ingroup identification affect children

It boosts their self-esteem

Describe Martin and Halversons study into gender schema theory

They found that children under 6 were more likely to remember photos of stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour than gender inappropriate behaviour, when retested a week later they tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the gender inappropriate task to fit in with their gender schema.

Describe Zosuls study into gender schema theory

They conducted a longitudinal study and doling that children could label themselves as boy or girl by 19 months (almost as soon as they could communicate) which suggests that Martin and Halverson underestimated children’s ability to use gender labels about themselves

Describe cultural differences as a strength of Martin and Halverson’s research

Cherry argues that gender schema not only influence how people process information but also what culturally appropriate gender behaviour is for example traditional cultures will raise children who believe women should take a nurturing role and men should pursue a career whereas cultures with more fluid gender roles will raise children who develop schema consistent with this view.

Oedipus complex

Freud’s explanation that boys identify with their father to resolve feelings of rivalry towards their father and love for their mother

Electra complex

Jung described how girls identify with their mothers due to a envy of and attraction to their father

In which psychosexual stage did Freud suggest gender development occurs

The phallic stage

What are the psychosexual stages in order

Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

What does Freud suggest is the main factor driving boys identification with their fathers

Castration anxiety

What is double resentment which girls feel in the electra complex

Girls resent their mother for being a rival for their fathers love and for their lack of penis (penis envy)

What do girls substitute penis envy with

The desire to have children

Whats internalisation according to Freud

When children take on board the gender identity of the same-gender parent

Whats the case study Freud used to develop the psychodynamic approach

Little Hans

How did Freud explain Little Hans’s fear

He suggested that Little Han’s fear of getting bitten by the horse represented his fear of castration due to displacement

Explain evidence support for the psychodynamic explanation of gender development

Freud’s explanation requires a male parent to be present for ‘normal’ gender development to occur. Refers and Morey conducted a study rating the gender identity of around 50 boys based on interviews with their family. Of those classified as gender disturbed 75% had no father figure present. This suggests that being raised without a father van have a negative impact on gender identity.

Explain evidence against the relationship between absent fathers and problems around gender identity

Bos and Sandfort compared data from around 60 children with two lesbian parents and around 70 children from traditional families, they found that children raised by lesbian parents felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes but had no different in terms of gender identity. This contradicts Freud’s theory and instead suggests that fathers are not necessary for healthy gender development.

Explain how female development is a limitation of Freud’s explanation of gender development

Freud wrote extensively about the Oedipus complex but provided an inadequate account of female gender development, instead this was taken up by Jung. In this way Freud’s account is androcentric and even concepts such as penis envy can be viewed as outdated and reflective of the androcentric Victorian society he lived in. Horney argues that womb envy is a more powerful factor than penis envy. This challenged the idea that female gender development is based on a desire to want to be like a man and suggest that Freud’s account suffers from androcentric bias.

How is pseudoscience a limitation of Freud’s theory

The psychodynamic approach lacks scientific credibility as his case studies lack scientific rigour, and many concepts such as penis envy are unconscious and therefore are untestable and unfalsifiable. This contrasts with the objective and highly controlled methods adopted by other approaches. This calls into the question the validity of Freud’s theory in explaining gender development due to the lack of sound scientific evidence

How does social learning theory explain gender development

Gender development occurs through observation (both direct and indirect)

Whats direct reinforcement in terms of gender

Children are praised for demonstrating stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour

Whats differential reinforcement

The way girls and boys are encouraged to demonstrate distinct gender-appropriate behaviour

Whats vicarious reinforcement in terms of gender development

Children learn behaviours through the consequences of other people’s behaviour, if the consequences are favourable they will be more likely to model this behaviour

Role models

People who have favourable characteristics which children want to adopt and are the same gender as the children

Modelling

The demonstration of a behaviour that may then be imitated by an observer

Identification

The process by which a child attached themselves to someone who is seen like them or who they want to be like

What are the 4 mediational processes

Attention, retention, motivation, motor reproduction

Explain research support for social learning theory of gender development + counterpoint

Smith and Lloyd dressed infants in both boys and girls clothes (irrespective of their sex) and found participants were more likely to give infants hammer shaped rattles when they were dressed as boys and a cuddly doll if they were dressed like girls. This suggests that gender-appropriate behaviour is demonstrated at an early age through differential reinforcement which supports the principles of social learning theory

However, differential reinforcement may not be the cause of gender differences parents may simply be responding to innate gender differences. For example boys encouraged to be more active may be due to hormonal differences that cause them to naturally be more active, This suggests that social learning is an incomplete explanation of how children develop gender identities.

Explain explanatory power of cultural differences as strength of SLT

Social learning can explain cultural changes/differences in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour, For example there has been a shift in stereotypically feminine and masculine behaviours over time and there has been no corresponding change in biological factors, Therefore the shift in social expectations and cultural norms has led to the change in gender behaviours and this can therefore be explained by social learning theory

Explain developmental sequence as a limitation of SLT

Social learning theory doesn’t provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age, instead the approach suggests that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age. However it seems illogical to suggest that a 2 year old and 9 year old child can learn in the same way and furthermore this approach conflicts with other approaches such as Kohlbergs theory. This suggests that social learning is an incomplete explanation of gender identity as it fails too acknowledge age and maturation as an influential factor in gender development.

Describe Mead’s study on gender roles across cultures

Mead studied different tribes in Papua New Guinea and found that the Arapesh tribe were gentle and embodies the stereotypes of femininity in modern societies, the Mundugumor tribe were aggressive and embodies the modern stereotypes of masculine behaviours and finally the Tchambuli tribe had dominant women and passive men, the reverse of gender roles in modern industrialised societies.

What did Mead’s study suggest about culture and gender roles

It suggests that there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender and instead gender roles are actually culturally determined. Despite many gender-typical behaviours being universal the extent to which innate behaviours are expressed appears to be the result of cultural norms

Describe Buss’s study into cultural similarities in gender behaviour

He found consistent patterns in mate preference across 37 countries across all 7 continents. In all of these cultures women sought men offering wealth and resources whilst men looked for youths and physical attractiveness.

How does the media influence gender roles

The media provides role models which children can identify with and imitate

Does the media reinforce gender steotypes

The media provides clear rigid gender stereotypes such as men being ambitious and independent (Bussey and bandura), for example in adverts men are more likely to be shown in autonomous roles with professional contexts which suggests that the media plays a large role in reinforcing social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviour

Self-efficacy

The extent to which seeing gender-appropriate behaviours increases a child’s belief that they’re capable of imitating such behaviours in the future

Media

Communication channels through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available

Describe a study demonstrating how the media influences self-efficacy

Mitra analysed the attitudes of Indian participants who watched a detective drama aimed at challenging gender stereotypes and they found that girls who watched it were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home than girls who hadn’t watched it.