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What structures make up the upper respiratory tract?

Nose, mouth, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, trachea

What structures make up the lower respiratory tract?

Bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

What happens to the diaphragm during inspiration?

It descends

What happens to intrapulmonary pressure during inspiration?

It decreases

Why does air enter the lungs during inspiration?

Intrapulmonary pressure decreases

What happens to the diaphragm during expiration?

It rises

What happens to intrapulmonary pressure during expiration?

It increases

Why does air exit the lungs during expiration?

Intrapulmonary pressure increases

What system provides neural regulation of respiration?

Central nervous system

Which part of the brain controls voluntary breathing?

Cerebral cortex

What blood values regulate respiration chemically?

CO₂, O₂, and hydrogen ion concentration (pH)

Where are chemoreceptors located?

Medulla, aortic body, carotid body

What is ventilation?

Movement of gases into and out of the lungs

What is diffusion?

Exchange of gases between alveoli and capillaries

What is perfusion?

Transport of oxygenated blood to tissues and return of deoxygenated blood

What affects the rate of gas diffusion in the lungs?

Thickness of alveolar capillary membrane

What systems are required for oxygen transport?

Respiratory and cardiovascular systems

What protein carries oxygen and carbon dioxide?

Hemoglobin

How does the respiratory system filter air?

Traps particles before reaching lungs

What is the function of the mucociliary clearance system?

Moves mucus and trapped particles upward

What is the purpose of the cough reflex?

Clears secretions from airways

What role do alveolar macrophages play?

Destroy pathogens in alveoli

How many chambers are in the heart?

Four (two atria, two ventricles)

What does Starling's law state?

Increased myocardial stretch increases contraction strength

What causes the S1 heart sound?

Closure of mitral and tricuspid valves

What causes the S2 heart sound?

Closure of aortic and pulmonic valves

What is the function of coronary arteries?

Supply myocardium with oxygen and nutrients

What is the purpose of systemic circulation?

Deliver oxygen/nutrients and remove waste

What is work of breathing?

Effort required to inhale and exhale

What is surfactant?

Substance that prevents alveolar collapse

What is atelectasis?

Collapse of alveoli

What is hypoxia?

Inadequate tissue oxygenation at cellular level

What are the earliest signs of hypoxia?

Restlessness, changes in LOC

What are late signs of hypoxia?

Cyanosis, nail clubbing

What is hypercapnia?

Excess CO₂ in bloodstream

What happens to blood pH during hyperventilation?

Becomes more alkaline

What happens to blood pH during hypoventilation?

Becomes more acidic

What is cyanosis?

Blue discoloration due to low oxygenated hemoglobin

How does anemia affect oxygenation?

Decreases oxygen-carrying capacity

Why is carbon monoxide dangerous?

It binds hemoglobin, preventing oxygen transport

How does hypovolemia cause hypoxia?

Reduced circulating blood volume

What conditions reduce inspired oxygen concentration?

High altitude, hypoventilation

What conditions increase metabolic oxygen demand?

Fever, pregnancy, exercise, wound healing

What conditions limit chest wall movement?

Obesity, pregnancy, flail chest, musculoskeletal disorders

Which neuromuscular diseases affect breathing?

Guillain-Barré, myasthenia gravis, poliomyelitis

Which spinal levels affect diaphragm control?

C3-C5 (phrenic nerve)

Why are infants prone to respiratory infections?

Immature immune system

Why are older adults at higher respiratory risk?

Decreased lung elasticity and ciliary function

How does obesity affect breathing?

Decreases lung expansion, increases oxygen demand

How does smoking affect oxygenation?

Causes vasoconstriction and COPD

How does alcohol affect respiration?

Depresses respiratory center

How does stress affect oxygen demand?

Increases metabolic rate

What environmental factors increase respiratory disease?

Pollution and occupational exposures

What type of chest pain requires immediate evaluation?

Angina pectoris

What is pleuritic chest pain?

Sharp pain worse with inspiration

What is orthopnea?

Dyspnea relieved by upright position

What is hemoptysis?

Bloody sputum from respiratory tract

How is pack-year history calculated?

Packs per day × years smoked

What is the normal adult respiratory rate?

12-20 breaths per minute

What does tripod positioning indicate?

Respiratory distress

What are signs of respiratory distress?

Tachypnea, air hunger, accessory muscle use

What is the priority intervention for hypoxia?

Oxygen therapy

What diagnostic test measures oxygenation and acid-base balance?

ABGs

What does pulse oximetry measure?

Oxygen saturation

What FiO₂ does a nasal cannula provide?

24-40%

Why must a simple mask run at ≥6 L/min?

Prevent CO₂ rebreathing

Which device delivers the highest oxygen concentration?

Non-rebreather mask

Which oxygen device provides precise FiO₂?

Venturi mask

What is pneumonia?

Infection of lung parenchyma

What is the most common cause of atelectasis?

Post-surgical procedures

What triggers asthma exacerbations?

Allergies, cold, exercise, smoking, URIs

What defines COPD?

Progressive, irreversible airflow limitation

What is the earliest sign of hypoxia?

Restlessness

Why does fever cause rapid breathing?

Increased metabolic demand

What nursing intervention best prevents hospital-acquired pneumonia?

Turn, cough, deep breathe every 2 hours