ml and sa test 2

chapters 11-14

learning

change in behavior due to experience, something is lost or gained

behavior

anything an organism does that can be measured

skill learning characteristics

improvement, consistency, stability, persistence, adaptability

performance vs learning

performance:

• observable

• temporary

• may not be due to practice or experience

• can be influenced by performance behaviors

learning:

• not directly observable

• relatively permanent

• due to practice or experience

motor learning

a change in the capability of a person to perform a skill that must be inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience

general trends seen on performance curves

linear - proportional increases over time

negatively accelerated - early improvement but slows during latter practice (most common)

positively accelerated - slight improvement early but significant improvement in later practice

ogive or s shaped - combo of first 3

assessing learning

retention tests (persistence) - test of a practiced skill that the learner performs after practice has ceased, purpose is to assess how permanent the performance level is achieved during practice

transfer test (adaptability) - includes performing a practiced skill in another context or performing a variation of the skill

coordination dynamics - observing consistency and transition of dynamics of movement coordination related to performing skill

why does practice performance sometimes misrepresent learning

• practice may involve performance variable

• performance plateaus - a period when a learner experiences no improvement after experiencing consistent improvement

Fitts and Posner 3 stage model of skill acquisition

1. cognitive stage (verbal-cognitive stage) - task is new, many questions and errors, improve rapidly

2. associative stage (motor stage) - associate cues from the environment with required movements, organize more efficient patterns, consistency improves, lasts longer

3. autonomous stage - performance becomes automatic, programming longer movement sequences

1st stage of Gentile’s 2 stage model for instruction and rehab environments

initial stage

2 goals:

1. movement coordination pattern to enable some degree of success achieving goals

2. learns to discriminate regulatory and non-regulatory conditions in environmental context

2nd stage of Gentile’s 2 stage model

later stages (fixation/diversification)

works to acquire 3 characteristics:

1. adapting movement pattern to demands of any performance situation

2. increase consistency of action goal achievement

3. perform with an economy of effort (efficiency)

learner matches acquired movement pattern to the environment

• closed skill - fixation goal, focus on increasing consistency of producing same movement pattern each time

• open skill - diversification goal, focus on increasing capability to adapt to changing spatial and temporal regulatory conditions

characteristics that can change across stages of learning

• rate of improvement

• movement coordination

• altering an old or preferred coordination pattern

• muscles used to perform the skill

• energy cost

• achieving the kinematic goals of the skill

• visual selective attention

• demand of conscious attention

practice specificity hypothesis

learning is specific to the sources of sensory information available during practice

dependency on the sensory feedback is developed because it becomes part of the memory representation of the skill

distinct characteristics of expertise

• intense practice resulted in expertise

• minimum of 10 years practice resulted in expertise

• knowledge structure

• use of vision

2 ways performance can be predicted in later stages

1. correlating initial and later performance

2. intertrial correlation

transfer of learning

influence of previous skill on learning a new skill or performing a skill in a new context

applications of sequencing activities to help someone learn a skill

rehab settings, P.E. settings, coaching settings, and occupational settings

positive transfer

beneficial effect

reasons:

1. similarity of skill or context components

2. similarity of info processing activity required

negative transfer

temporary, occurs when a new skill/ context involves similar environmental context features but different movement (spatial or temporal differences)

reasons:

1. motor control system required to perform in non-preferred manner for environmental context

2. cognitive confusion

bilateral transfer

transfer of learning that involves the positive influence of previous experience performing a skill with one limb on learning or performing the same skill with a different limb

direction of bilateral transfer

asymmetric - greater amount of transfer from one limb to the other, most common

symmetric - amount of transfer is similar from one limb to the other regardless of which used first

explanations for bilateral transfer

cognitive explanation - important cognitive info acquired from practice with one limb and available when other limb begins to perform

motor control explanation:

generalized motor program explanation - muscle is only parameter

dynamic pattern theory explanation - skill learning is effector independent

simplification

skill progressions are based on the assumption that experiences with simplified tasks will positively transfer to actual movement

goals of instructions

1. introduce a learner to a skill - communicate a general idea of a goal or skill

2. skill refinement - develop learner’s skill goal

what does the observer perceive from demonstration?

invariant features of the coordinated movement pattern

when is demonstration most effective?

when the skill being learned requires acquisition of a new pattern of coordination

benefits of peer demonstration

• beginners can derive learning benefits from observing other beginners practice a skill

• discourages imitation of a skilled model’s performance

• encourages observer to engage in more active problem solving

when should demonstration be given

before practice and during practice as frequently as necessary

cognitive mediation theory

observed movement info of the model is translated into a symbolic memory code which allows rehearsal and organization of the info and serves as a guide for performance

4 subprocesses:

1. attention process - observations and extraction of important info

2. retention process - transformation and restructuring of observations into symbolic memory codes which gets stored in memory

3. behavior reproduction process - memory codes of the model action are translated into physical activity

4. motivation process - incentive or motivation to perform the modeled action

dynamic view of modeling

the visual system is capable of picking up relevant info from the model that can be used to constrain the motor system to act in a proper way for the required action

verbal cues

short, simple statements to be very effective as verbal instructions to facilitate learning new skills, as well as performing well-learned skills

factors of effective verbal instruction

• amount of verbal instruction

• focus on movement outcomes

• focus on invariant environmental context regulatory conditions

• goal achievement strategies

• verbal cues

what should be demonstrated?

entire vs partial movement:

• initially demonstrate entire movement

• if skill is complex then break it down into parts

real time vs slow motion:

• initially use real time then after concept is grasped use slow motion

• limit use of slow motion

who should demonstrate?

movement imitation vs exploration:

• export models - encourages movement imitation, helpful because movements are correct

• learning model - encourages problem solving, provides extra feedback while listing

learners typically learn better when they have something in common with the model

demonstration organization

• make sure everyone can see and offer various viewing options

• avoid final outcomes from demonstration

• explain demonstration beforehand to draw learners attention to key elements