Reading: Introduction - The Nature and Aims of Archaeology

Reading from Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice by Renfrew, Bahn, and DeMarrais

What is the broad definition of archaeology?

The study of past human cultures through the material culture and built environments left behind by societies

What is the definition of anthropology?

The study of humanity and our physical and non-biological characteristics or our culture

What is the definition of culture used in anthropology and by whom was it created?

It is summarised by Edward Tylor in his 1871 Primitive Culture as the ‘knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’ → can also be more restricted to refer to specific societies and their differences from other societies

What are the main branches into which anthropology is divided?

1. Biological anthropology

2. Cultural anthropology

3. Linguistic anthropology

4. Archaeology

What is biological anthropology?

Also called physical anthropology, the study of human biological/physical characteristics and how they have evolved

What is cultural anthropology?

Also called social anthropology, the analysis of human culture and society → further split into branches including ethnography and ethnology

What are ethnography and ethnology?

Two branches of cultural anthropology:

• Ethnography → the first-hand study of individual living creatures

• Ethnology → the use of ethnography as evidence to compare cultures and derive general principles about human society

What is linguistic anthropology?

The study of world languages to investigate the influence of language on culture and social interactions

What is the material culture of a society?

The buildings, ruins, tools, and other artifacts left behind by a society

What is the purpose of archaeological theory?

To explicitly outline the assumptions and models used to understand material evidence and reconstruct the past

What is the difference between cultural anthropology and archaeology?

• Cultural anthropology → often immersion into the studied culture by living within contemporary societies

• Archaeology → requires reconstruction due to focussing on past rather than present societies

How is archaeology crucial to history?

It is the only significant source of information for 99% of the 3 million years of human history (excepting biological anthropology)

When is history considered to begin?

~ 3000 B.C. in West Asia with the introduction of written records → history traditionally studies written records rather than other forms of information

Why is the traditional definition of history criticised?

The implication that written texts are superior to oral histories, placing other cultures beneath the European ones that favour written records

How is definition of history used within anthropology?

Largely as a convenient designation that recognises the importance of writing in the modern world, but does not mean to denigrate other forms of knowledge → anthropology studies cultures with or without written records

How does archaeological evidence differ from historical evidence?

Archaeological evidence must be made sense of in some way rather than directly interpreted in the same way as a historical source

How is archaeological analysis similar to scientific analysis?

Both use a process of collecting evidence, formulating a hypothesis, conducting experiments, testing the hypothesis, and creating a model to summarise observations

What are examples of scientific elements in archaeology?

Radiocarbon dating, analysis of food residue in pots, shared application of analyses and inferences

What are arguments about the creation of conclusion based on evidence in archaeology?

• Some argue the need for a separate theory to bridge the gap between evidence and observations/conclusions

• Others argue that distinctions between theory and method are unnecessary, archaeology consisting of both parts (textbook’s argument)

What unites all fields and branches of archaeology?

Consistent methods and approaches to analysis and observations

What are two main ways by which archaeology can be subdivided?

Chronology and methodology

What are some chronological subdivisions of archaeology?

• Specialisations into prehistory vs. history

• Specialties in specific time periods like the Old Stone Age or Egyptology

What are more recently developed chronological specialisations in archaeology?

Recent rise in more recent history since the 1990s:

• Historical archaeology (or modern world archaeology) → primarily in North America and Australia and analyses postcolonial settlements and interactions with Indigenous societies

• Medieval and post-medieval archaeology in Europe

What are six non-chronological specialties of archaeology?

• Environmental archaeology

• Underwater archaeology

• Ethnoarchaeology

• Bioarchaeology

• Geoarchaeology

• Archaeogenetics

What is environmental archaeology?

The study of past human use of plants/animals and how societies adapted to changing environments

What is underwater archaeology and an example of its use?

The scientific study of underwater evidence such as shipwrecks → Egyptian statue in submerged ruins of ancient city near Alexandria

What is ethnoarchaeology and an example of its use?

The study of past societies through the formation process of the archaeological record:

• Knowing how the record was created by studying contemporary communities and their material culture

• Lewis Binford’s study of hunter-gatherer butchery practices of the Nunamiut in Alaska to understand bone remains of animals eaten by earlier humans elsewhere

What are two examples of the study of contemporary material culture?

• The analysis of changing bottle designs

• Use of forensic pathology to investigate war crimes across areas, e.g. in Bosnia, West Africa, and Iraq

How were actualistic studies pioneered?

William L. Rathje’s study of rubbish in various sectors of Tucson, Arizona to understand modern urban consumption patterns

What are five examples of actualistic studies after Rathje’s?

Preservation of:

• Airfields and battle sites of WWII

• Telecommunication facilities from the Cold War

• Pieces of the Berlin Wall after 1989

• The 1950 Nevada Test Site used for weapons testing

• Artifacts from 9/11, including creation of memorials and a museum

What are three examples of more modern specialties of archaeology and how are they mainly developed?

They all stem from scientific progress and developments:

• Bioarchaeology

• Geoarchaeology

• Archaeogenetics

What is bioarchaeology?

The study of plants/animals in the human diet → emerged from environmental emphasis at the end of the 20th century

What is geoarchaeology?

The use of geology to reconstruct environments and study lithic (stone) materials

What is archaeogenetics?

The use of molecular genetics to study ancient DNA

What are two examples of destruction of archaeological evidence/sites?

• Deliberate destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas in Afghanistan (2001)

• Levelling of Nineveh in northern Iraq (2015)

What is an example of archaeology being sacrificed for modern projects?

Mao Zedong’s idea of ‘let the past serve the present’ during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-76) that excused the destruction of artifacts

What issues does modern archaeology work to address?

• Recognising its colonial past

• Working to address past power imbalances

• Collaborating with local and descending communities to do so

• Idea that the past should be representative and accessible to everyone

• Indigenous archaeology → subdivision embodying these concepts

What is an example of how tourism impacts archaeology?

• Stonehenge having rising tourists, leading to construction of £27 million visitor centre (2013)

• Controversy surrounding a potential tunnel for major road near Stonehenge → potential to damage remains

What are examples of museums participating in the commercial destruction of archaeology?

• Settlement in 2006-9 between the Italian government and the Metropolitan Museum (New York), Getty Museum (Malibu), and Cleveland Museum to return looted antiquities

• Debate about the Parthenon Sculptures (Elgin Marbles) held at the British Museum

• Decision of multiple institutions to return the Benin Bronzes

What are five ethical issues within archaeology?

• The destruction of evidence and sites

• The importance of archaeology over modern sites

• The colonial past of archaeology

• Tourism damaging archaeological evidence and sites

• Museums purchasing illicit artifacts without knowing their origin or history and perpetuating the commercial destruction they are meant to counter

What is the 19th and 20th century objective of archaeology?

To reconstruct the past

What is the modern objective of archaeology?

To not only recreate the past, but also understand patterns of change and why the past was as it was

What are the four stages of a research design?

1. Formulating a research strategy to resolve a particular question, test a hypothesis, or analyse an idea

2. Collecting and recording evidence against which that idea can be evaluated → usually by organising a team of specialists to conduct fieldwork, whether survey, excavation, or both

3. Processing and analysing that evidence and interpreting it in the light of the original idea

4. Publishing the results in articles, reports, books, and so on → often neglected, but still important

How is archaeological research conducted?

By using a research design, which is often not as straightforward in practice but should maintain an overall objective from start to finish