Issues and debates

Define Universality

any underlying characteristic or behaviour of human beings that could be applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing.

(psychology claims to have universality but time, culture and gender bias all threaten the universality of findings)

Define Beta bias

exaggerating the similarities between men and women (or minimising the differences)

What are the two types of gender bias?

Beta bias

Alpha bias

Define Alpha bias

Exaggerating or overestimating the differences between men and women.

what are the two types of alpha bias

Androcentrism

Gynocentrism

Define Androcentrism

Taking male thinking/behaviour as the accepted norm;

regarding female thinking as abnormal, inferior when it is different.

Define Gynocentrism

Taking female thinking/ behaviour as the accepted norm;

regarding male thinking as deviant, inferior when it is different.

What makes a sample culturally bias? and explain the meaning

WEIRD participants

White

Educated

Industrialised

Rich

Democratic

Define Cultural Bias

A tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all behaviour through the norms of your own culture.

Define Ethnocentrism

A culture bias leading to the belief in the superiority of your own culture, causing prejudice and discrimination towards other cultures.

Define Emic behaviours

The behavioural constructs particular to a specific culture. (e.g over-thanking = england. bowing to great=nigeria. clapping cuped hands to elders= Zimbabwe)

Define Etic behaviours

The behavioural constructs that are universal to all people. (e.g the need to attach, sleep , communicate)

Define Imposed Etics

where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another (in belief that it is universal ) and a behaviour is misinterpreted.

Define Cultural Relativism

The idea that norms and values (and ethics/morals) can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.

(avoids cultural bias… but limits/prevents universality)

Define Determinism

The idea that our behaviour is controlled by internal or external factors outside of our control.

Define Free Will

• The idea that we are able to control and choose our course of action

• we can make our own decisions and act in unconstrained ways

Define Hard determinism

The idea that environment, genetics, unconscious impulses and other influences cause people to act the way they do and because of this they are not responsible for their actions.

Define Soft determinism

-All events including human actions have causes; but it allows for some actions, to involve a choice

Define Biological determinism

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological factors (e.g genetics, hormonal, evolutionary), influences we can’t control.

Define Environmental Determinism

The belief that behaviours are caused by features of the environment.

Define Psychic Determinism

The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.

What is meant by ethnocentrism in psychology? - 2m

• judging other cultures according to the norms/standard/values of one’s own culture

• at the extreme, believing in the superiority of one’s own culture

• for example , ethnocentrism can lead to bias in research, where a psychologist may interpret behaviors of individuals from another culture through a limited, culturally biased lens.

Outline two limitations of ethnocentrism. -4m

• can lead to prejudice against other ethnic groups/out groups

• can lead to discrimination against other ethnic groups/out groups

• increases in-group, out-group identity – emphasises apparent differences between own ethnic group and others

• assumes members of an ethnic group are all the same/negates individual differences

• in psychology, has led to the adoption of a ‘Western norm’ which would then devalue other cultures

• findings from ethnocentric research should not be generalised to other cultures as only one culture has been studied – lack of validity.

What is meant by androcentrism? -2m

• male-centred or male-biased view of the world

• male behaviour and masculine traits are judged to be the norm/acceptable/desirable

• female behaviour/feminine traits are judged to be abnormal/less acceptable/less desirable.

Suggest two ways in which psychologists could avoid gender bias in their research. -2m

• do not extrapolate findings from research with male participants to females OR do not extrapolate findings from research with female participants to males

• use both male and female participants in research • involve both male and female researchers

• do not exaggerate differences between males and females where there are no real differences – avoid alpha bias

• do not minimise or ignore real differences between the behaviour of males and females – avoid beta bias

• be sensitive to male and female norms/standards when designing research/when reporting findings

• take a reflexive approach, ie constantly reflecting on own gender biases when carrying out research.