ch 10

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Achievement Motivation

A drive to excel, succeed, or outperform others.

High Achievers

People with strong achievement motivation who prefer moderately challenging tasks and persist through difficulty.

Instinct Theory

Behavior is driven by innate, biologically programmed instincts.

Drive‑Reduction Theory

A physiological need creates an aroused state (drive) that motivates an organism to reduce the need (e.g., eating to reduce hunger).

Homeostasis

The body’s tendency to maintain internal balance (e.g., temperature, glucose levels).

Glucose

A form of sugar that circulates in the blood; low glucose triggers hunger.

Arousal

A state of alertness and mental/physical activation.

Arousal Theory

People seek an optimal level of arousal—not too high, not too low.

Yerkes‑Dodson Law

Performance is best at moderate arousal; too little or too much reduces performance.

Incentives

External rewards or punishments that motivate behavior.

Set Point

The body’s biologically determined weight range; metabolism adjusts to maintain it.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Hunger Influences

Biological (glucose, hormones), psychological (stress, mood), and social‑cultural (portion size, norms) factors that affect eating.

Obesity Factors

Genetics, environment, metabolism, sleep, stress, and food availability.

Healthy Eating Strategies

Portion control, mindful eating, reducing processed foods, increasing fruits/vegetables, regular meals.

Need for Affiliation

The human desire to form close, positive relationships.

Ostracism

Social exclusion; triggers pain responses similar to physical pain.

Social Networking Effects

Can increase connection but also loneliness, comparison, and anxiety depending on usage.

Screen Time and Mental Health

Excessive screen time is linked to sleep problems, anxiety, depression, and reduced well‑being.

basic emotions

Universal emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise.

Valence

The emotional value of a stimulus—positive or negative.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Controls physiological arousal (heart rate, breathing, sweating) during emotional responses.

Polygraph

A “lie detector” that measures physiological arousal; not reliably accurate.

Nonverbal Communication

Communicating through body language, facial expressions, gestures, and tone.

Facial Expressions

Universal emotional signals; largely biologically based.

Display Rules

Cultural norms that dictate when and how emotions should be expressed.

Gender Differences

Women generally express and read emotions more accurately; influenced by biology and socialization.

Cultural Differences

Cultures vary in emotional expression, display rules, and interpretations of emotion.

James‑Lange Theory

Emotion follows physiological arousal.

Cannon‑Bard Theory

Physiological arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.

Schachter‑Singer Two‑Factor Theory

Emotion = physiological arousal + cognitive interpretation.

Cognitive‑Mediational Theory (Lazarus)

Cognitive appraisal (interpretation) happens first and determines emotional response.

Zajonc‑LeDoux Theory

Some emotional responses occur without conscious thinking (e.g., fear responses via the “low road”).

Facial Feedback Effect

Facial expressions influence emotional experience (smiling can make you feel happier).

Behavior Feedback Effect

Body movements and posture influence emotions (acting confident can increase confidence).

Goal Strategies

Specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time‑bound (SMART) plans that increase goal success.

Self‑Determination Theory

People are motivated when they feel autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Approach‑Avoidance Conflict

A single goal has both appealing and unappealing aspects.

Locus of Control

• Internal: You control your outcomes.

• External: Outside forces control outcomes.

Perceived Control

Belief in one’s ability to influence events; increases well‑being.

Subjective Well‑Being

Self‑perceived happiness and life satisfaction.

Relative Deprivation

Feeling worse off when comparing yourself to others who seem better off.

Adaptation‑Level Phenomenon

We adapt to new circumstances, so what once made us happy becomes the new normal.