Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

Attribution Theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (a situational attribution) or the persons stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution)

Dispositional Attributions

crediting the persons stable, enduring traits for their behavior

Situational Attributions

crediting the situation for someone’s behavior

Explanatory Style

a cognitive personality variable indicating how people habitually explain causes of events in their lives

Actor-Observer Bias

the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behaviors to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental attribution error

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Self-Serving Bias

a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably

Internal Locus of Control

a perception that we control our own fate

External Locus of Control

the perception that outside forced beyond out control determine our fate

Mere Exposure Effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Social Comparison

Leon Festinger — the tendency for individuals to evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and attributes by comparing themselves with others.

Relative Deprivation

the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves

Stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Cognitive Load

the total amount of mental effort or working memory resources being used at any given time

Prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude towards a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

Discrimination

(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.) (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

Implicit Attitudes

involuntary, unconscious evaluations or feelings about people, objects, or concepts that occur automatically and influence behavior without conscious awareness

Just-World Phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

the tendency to perceive members of an out-group (a group you do not belong to) as "all the same" or highly similar to each other, while viewing one's own in-group as diverse and unique

In-Group Bias

the tendency to favor, trust, or allocate more resources to members of one’s own group ("us") over those in an out-group ("them"). It is a social cognitive bias driven by the need for positive social identity, often resulting in irrational loyalty and unfair treatment of outsiders

Ethnocentrism

the belief that one’s own culture, ethnic group, or social group is superior to others,

Scapegoat Theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Other-Race Effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races

Belief Perseverance

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Confirmation Bias

the cognitive tendency for look for information that supports one’s preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

Peripheral Route Persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

Halo Effect

a cognitive bias in AP Psychology where an overall positive impression of a person, brand, or product (based on one trait) influences observers to assume other positive traits exist

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

an unreasonable, large request is made first—and rejected—followed by a smaller, reasonable request. People are more likely to accept the second request, feeling compelled to reciprocate the requester's "concession" of lowering their demand

Cognitive Dissonance

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware thar our attitudes and action clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

Social Norms

the unwritten, socially determined rules and expectations that dictate proper or typical behavior within a specific group or society

Social Influence Theory

explains how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped or changed by the real or imagined pressure, opinions, and actions of others

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Informational Social Influence

influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

Persuasion

changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions

Conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Central Route Persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

Obedience

complying with an order or command

Individualism

a cultural pattern that emphasizes people’s own goals over group goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes

Collectivism

a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one’s extended family or work group)

Multiculturalism

the recognition, appreciation, and promotion of multiple cultural, ethnic, and racial groups coexisting within a society

Group Polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Diffusion of Responsibility

a sociopsychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to take action or help in an emergency when other people are present, because they assume others will take responsibility

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Social Facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks.

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Loose Culture

a place with flexible and informal norms

Tight Culture

a place with clearly defines and reliably imposed norms

Prosocial Behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. (opposite of antisocial behavior)

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Social Responsibility Norm

a societal rule and expectation that people should help those who are dependent on them or in need, without expecting rewards or future reciprocation

Attraction (factors)

the positive feelings, attitudes, or beliefs held toward another person, which can range from liking to loving. It is a key social psychology concept driven by proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness, and familiarity, often serving as the foundation for friendships and romantic relationships

Sternberg’s Love Theory

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love, a key concept in AP Psychology, posits that love is composed of three essential components—Intimacy (closeness), Passion (physical attraction), and Commitment (decision to stay)—which interact to form seven distinct types of love, culminating in the ideal "Consummate Love".

Passionate Love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

Companionate Love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Self-Disclosure

the voluntary, intentional process of revealing intimate, personal, or private information about oneself to another person. It is a crucial factor in developing attraction, trust, and fostering deeper, more intimate relationships through mutual sharing

The Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

Frustration-Aggression Principle

the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression