FIINAL EXAM

Flashcards covering fundamental concepts of anatomy, physiology, cellular biology, histology, biochemistry, and human body systems based on lecture notes.

Anatomy

The study of the structure of living organisms.

Physiology

The study of the function of the body's systems.

Inspection

A way of studying anatomy by looking at the body’s surface.

Palpation

Feeling structures with the hands during an anatomical study.

Auscultation

Listening to body sounds to study anatomy.

Percussion

Tapping on the body and listening for abnormalities.

Comparative anatomy

The study of multiple species to learn about anatomical features.

Histology

The microscopic study of tissues.

Cytology

The study of individual cells.

Ultrastructure

Molecular-level detail of a cell revealed via electron microscopy.

Scientific Method

A systematic way of gaining knowledge through observation, testing, and reasoning.

Hypothesis

An educated guess or possible explanation that is testable and falsifiable.

Psychosomatic Effects

Effects on a study subject caused by their own expectations rather than the treatment itself.

Double-Blind Method

An experimental procedure where neither the subjects nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment to prevent bias.

Theory

A summary of conclusions drawn from repeated observations that explains why something happens.

Organ

A structure composed of two or more tissues working together to perform a specific function.

Integumentary System

The body system consisting of skin, hair, nails, and glands that covers and protects the body.

Endocrine System

A network of glands that release hormones to control body functions.

Supine

Laying down on your back.

Prone

Laying down on your belly.

Contralateral

Located on the opposite side of the body.

Ipsilateral

Located on the same side of the body.

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment.

Distal

Further away from the point of attachment.

Axial Region

The center part of the body, including the skull, ribcage, ossicles, spine, and hyoid bone.

Midsagittal Plane

A vertical plane that divides the body into equal right and left halves.

Homeostasis

The process by which living organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain a constant, stable condition.

Negative Feedback

A physiological mechanism that resists deviation from a set point to return the body to homeostasis.

Isotope

Two or more forms of the same element with equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Anion

A particle with a negative charge due to an extra electron.

Cation

A particle with a positive charge due to the loss of an electron.

Electrolytes

Substances that ionize in water to create solutions capable of conducting an electric current.

Hydrogen Bond

A weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen atom.

Hydrophobic

Substances that fear water and do not dissolve in it, such as oil.

Hydrophilic

Substances that are water-loving and dissolve easily, such as sugar.

Enzymes

Proteins that act as catalysts for metabolism.

Cell Theory

The concept that all organisms are made of cells, and cells are the simplest unit of life.

Mitochondria

The powerhouse of the cell and the site of cellular respiration where $ATP$ is produced.

Lysosomes

Organelles containing digestive enzymes used to break down waste and foreign materials.

Mitosis

The part of the cell cycle where nuclear separation occurs into two daughter cells.

Stratum Basale

The deepest layer of the epidermis.

Vasodilation

The widening of blood vessels when the body is hot to lose heat.

Vasoconstriction

The narrowing of blood vessels when the body is cold to conserve heat.

Melanocytes

Cells in the epidermis that produce melanin.

Metastasis

The spread of cancer from its original site to other parts of the body.

Naked Eye Resolution

The ability of the human eye to resolve details down to approximately $100\,\mu m$.

Glycocalyx

A fuzzy coat on the cell surface formed by glycolipids and glycoproteins used for cell identification.

Purines

Double-ring nitrogenous bases including Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).

Pyrimidines

Single-ring nitrogenous bases including Cytosine (C), Uracil (U), and Thymine (T).

Codon

A three-nucleotide sequence on mRNA that stands for one specific amino acid.

Transcription

The process occurring in the nucleus where DNA is used to produce mRNA.

Translation

The process in the cytoplasm where mRNA is used to create a specific protein.

Matrix

The extracellular material of a tissue, which can be rubbery, stony, or gelatinous.

Ectoderm

The outer primary germ layer that gives rise to the epidermis and nervous system.

Mesoderm

The middle primary germ layer that forms mesenchyme, leading to muscle, bone, and blood.

Simple Squamous Epithelium

A single layer of thin, flat cells that allows for rapid diffusion.

Fibroblasts

Connective tissue cells that produce fibers and ground substance.

Adipocytes

Fat cells that store triglycerides.

Hyaline Cartilage

Supportive tissue with a clear, glassy matrix that supports the airway and eases joint movement.

Osteoblasts

Non-mitotic bone-forming cells that synthesize and deposit the organic bone matrix.

Osteoclasts

Bone-dissolving cells found on the bone surface that develop from the fusion of $3 \times 10^{0}$ to $5 \times 10^{1}$ stem cells.

Calcitriol

The most active form of Vitamin D that raises blood calcium levels by increasing intestinal absorption.

Calcitonin

A hormone secreted by the thyroid gland that lowers blood calcium levels.

Synarthrosis

A functional classification of joints that allows little to no movement.

Diarthrosis

A functional classification of joints that are freely movable.

Gomphosis

A fibrous joint defined as the attachment of a tooth to its socket.

Bursa

A sac filled with synovial fluid that reduces friction between body parts.

Sarcomere

The contractile unit in a striated muscle fiber extending from one Z disc to another.

Motor Unit

A combination of one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

Rigor Mortis

The stiffening of the body after death due to a lack of $ATP$ production, which prevents myosin from detaching from actin.

Edema

The abnormal accumulation of water in tissue fluid.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

A hormone triggered by dehydration that increases water reabsorption in the kidneys.

Aldosterone

A hormone that regulates sodium and fluid balance by promoting sodium retention in the kidneys.

Acidosis

A disorder that arises when the blood pH falls below $7.35$.

Alkalosis

A disorder that occurs when the blood pH rises above $7.45$.

Ghrelin

A hormone that functions as an appetite stimulant.

Leptin

A hormone secreted by adipocytes that regulates appetite and body weight.

Glycolysis

A metabolic pathway in the cytosol that converts glucose to pyruvate.

Glucagon

A hyperglycemic hormone produced by alpha cells in the pancreas that raises blood sugar levels.

Insulin

A hypoglycemic hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas that lowers blood sugar levels.

Cushing's Disease

A disorder resulting from the hypersecretion of cortisol.

Graves' Disease

A form of hyperthyroidism caused by antibodies that mimic TSH.

Zygote

The initial term for a fertilized egg.

Blastocyst

A hollow ball stage of prenatal development consisting of a trophoblast and an embryoblast.

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)

A hormone produced by the blastocyst and placenta that maintains the corpus luteum during pregnancy.

Oxytocin

A hormone that stimulates labor contractions, milk ejection, and emotional bonding.

Menopause

The cessation of menstruation, typically occurring between the ages of $45$ and $55$.