AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

Internal factors

Personal influences on perception and cognition.

External factors

Environmental influences on perception and cognition.

Top down processing

Perception guided by prior knowledge and expectations.

Bottom up processing

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks for organizing information.

Context influence

Surrounding environment affects perception interpretation.

Experience influence

Past experiences shape current perception.

Culture influence

Cultural background affects perception and cognition.

Gestalt psychology

school of thought emphasizing that human perception organizes individual sensory pieces into a unified, meaningful whole

Closure

a Gestalt principle of perception where the brain fills in gaps to perceive incomplete, fragmented visual information as a complete, unified whole

Figure ground

Distinguishing an object from its background.

Proximity

Objects close together perceived as a group.

Similarity

The principle that we group objects according to how similar they are to each other.

Cocktail party effect

the ability to selectively focus on one auditory stimulus (such as a single conversation) while filtering out a range of other stimuli in a noisy environment

Inattentional blindness

the failure to see something that is clearly visible when actively paying attention to something else.

Change blindness

Inability to detect changes in visual scenes.

Binocular depth cues

Depth perception using both eyes.

Retinal disparity

Difference in images from each eye for depth.

Convergence

Eyes turning inward to focus on nearby objects.

Monocular depth cues

Depth perception using one eye.

Relative clarity

Clearer objects perceived as closer.

Relative size

Smaller objects perceived as farther away.

Texture gradient

Detail decreases with distance perception.

Linear perspective

Parallel lines appear to converge with distance.

Interposition

Closer objects obstruct view of farther ones.

Perceptual constancy

tendency to perceive an object as remaining stable and unchanging despite changes in sensory input, such as alterations in its distance or in the light it reflects.

Stroboscopic effect (apparent movement)

a perceptual illusion where the brain perceives continuous motion from a rapid series of slightly varying, still images

Prototypes

Best example of a category or concept.

Concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Schema frameworks

Organised structures for understanding the world.

Assimilation

Integrating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures for problem-solving.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts for quick problem-solving.

Representative heuristic

mental shortcut where people judge the probability of an event or person based on how well they match an existing prototype, stereotype, or "representative" example

ex: Assuming a quiet person who loves books is a librarian rather than a salesperson, despite salespeople being more common.

Availability heuristic

a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision.

Mental set

Tendency to approach problems in familiar ways.

Priming

When exposure to one stimulus influences how people respond to a later stimulus.

Framing

Presentation of information affects decision-making.

Gambler's fallacy

Belief past events affect future probabilities.

Sunk cost fallacy

a cognitive bias causing people to continue an endeavor based on past investments (time, money, effort) rather than future benefits, even when staying the course is irrational

Executive functions

cognitive processes that allow individuals to plan, organize, and regulate their behavior in order to achieve goals. It includes skills such as problem-solving, decision-making, working memory, and impulse control.

Creativity

Ability to generate novel and useful ideas.

Divergent thinking

Generating multiple solutions to a problem.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Functional fixedness

Inability to see alternative uses for objects.

Memory

Process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Storage

the second step of memory, the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed.

Explicit memory

Conscious recollection of facts and events.

Episodic memory

Memory of personal experiences and events.

Semantic memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge.

Implicit memory

Unconscious retention of learned skills.

Procedural memory

type of long-term memory that helps us remember how to do things, like riding a bike or tying our shoes

Long term potentiation

Strengthening of synapses based on recent activity.

Working memory model

a theoretical framework that explains how the working memory system functions. It consists of three components: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the central executive.

Central executive system

Controls attention and coordinates information processing.

Phonological loop

Processes auditory information in working memory.

Visuospatial sketchpad

A memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space.

Short term memory

Limited capacity storage for brief information.

Long term memory

Unlimited capacity storage for extended periods.

Multi store model of memory

suggests our memories are processed through three distinct storage systems - sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

Brief retention of sensory information.

Automatic processing

the unconscious, effortless encoding of incidental information

Effortful processing

Conscious encoding requiring attention and effort.

Encoding

Transforming information into a format for storage.

Levels of processing model

Memory retention depends on processing depth.

Shallow processing

a low-level encoding method focused on superficial characteristics like appearance (structural) or sound (phonemic) rather than meaning

Deep processing

Encoding based on meaning and associations.

Structural

Processing based on physical structure of words.

Phonemic

Processing based on sound of words.

Semantic

Processing based on meaning of words.

Mnemonic devices

Techniques to enhance memory retention.

Method of loci

A mnemonic device, in which an individual associates information with a specific location in a familiar setting to enhance recall

Chunking

Grouping information into manageable units.

Categorizing

Organizing information into related groups.

Hierarchies

Organizing information in ranked levels.

The spacing effect

Better retention with spaced learning sessions.

Memory consolidation

The process by which a temporary newly formed memory is transformed into a stable long-term memory.

Massed practice

Learning in a short, intensive session.

Distributed practice

Learning spread over time for better retention.

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall the first and last items in a list.

Primacy effect

Better recall of initial items in a list.

Recency effect

Better recall of last items in a list.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repetition of information to keep it active.

Elaborative rehearsal

memory strategy that involves actively connecting new information to existing knowledge in order to enhance long-term retention and recall

Autobiographical memory

An incredibly accurate memory of an individual life’s events which may indicate that there are biological processes for superior memory storage

Amnesia

Loss of memory due to injury or trauma.

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall past memories.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Infantile amnesia

Inability to recall memories from early childhood.

Alzheimer's disease

Progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting memory.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information from cues.

Context dependent memory

Recall improved when in the same context.

Mood congruent memory

Recall influenced by current mood state.

State dependent memory

the phenomenon where people recall information better when they are in the same physiological or psychological state as when the information was encoded

Retrieval practice

Practicing retrieval enhances long-term retention.

The testing effect

Better retention through self-testing.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.